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Marine Sedimentation
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CONSTITUENTS OF MARINE SEDIMENTS

Since any solid material denser than sea water and relatively insoluble may fall to the sea floor, a wide variety of substances from many sources contributes to the sediments and may be considered under six headings: (1) detrital material, largely of immediate terrigenous origin, (2) products of subaerial and submarine volcanism, (3) skeletal remains of organisms and organic matter, (4) inorganic precipitates from sea water, (5) products of chemical transformation taking place in the sea, and (6) extraterrestrial materials.

Terrigenous Material. Two processes are involved in the break-down of terrigenous rocks of either igneous or sedimentary types. These are disintegration and decomposition. Disintegration is the mechanical breakdown of the rock into smaller fragments and does not necessarily involve any change in the composition of the material. Decomposition involves chemical changes in the rock substances which are brought about by the action of water and air. Certain of the constituents are more soluble or more readily attacked and, hence, pass into solution and are carried away. The processes of weathering depend upon the character of the rock and the many aspects of the climatic conditions. Weathering depends upon the amount of rock surface exposed and, therefore, to a large degree upon the amount of disintegration which will increase the exposed rock surface (Twenhofel, 1932, 1939).

The smaller the rock fragments the more likely they are to be carried to the sea, but actually those found in the sea vary from large boulders to particles of colloidal dimensions, so small that they cannot be identified under the microscope by the ordinary petrographic methods. The material found in the marine sediments varies from easily recognizable, chemically unaltered minerals, that is, the products of disintegration, to fine material which has undergone great changes in physical characteristics and chemical composition. In the first group belong the primary minerals, quartz, mica, feldspar, pyroxenes and amphiboles, and the heavy minerals. At the other extreme are the ultimate products of


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chemical weathering, such as clay minerals, free hydroxides of iron, alumina, colloidal silica, and material in various stages of transformation. Thus, two processes must always be kept in mind in the study of mineral substances in marine sediments: first, the degree of disintegration as represented by the size of the fragments, and second, the degree of weathering or decomposition as indicated by the absence of the more readily attacked substances and the presence of the ultimate products of chemical weathering.

Products of Volcanism. Two types of volcanism must be considered, namely, subaerial and submarine. In both, essentially the same kinds of material may be ejected; but in the first case the volcanic ejecta will be subjected to mechanical and chemical weathering before reaching the sea. Volcanic material may be first deposited on the land and later transported to the sea by the action of running water, but the lighter and more finely divided fragments may be carried over the sea by the air. As a result of transport by winds, volcanic material may be deposited in relatively large amounts over a considerable area and, in fact, ash from single eruptions is thought to have encircled the whole world. Furthermore, pumice will float in the water for some time. Volcanic material may frequently be recognized by its physical or chemical characteristics, but it is virtually impossible to determine the percentage of highly altered material which may have arisen from this source. The following types of unaltered material may occur: lava fragments, volcanic glass, pumice, and mineral grains. The greatest amounts of volcanic material are found near areas of volcanic activity and may give rise to a characteristic type of sediment. Certain parts of the sea floor are apparently covered with basaltic lava flows of relatively recent origin, either bare or covered with a thin veneer of sediments. Submarine volcanism is probably rather common and in some localities sufficient material has accumulated to reach the sea surface and give rise to volcanic oceanic islands. Further details of oceanic bottom topography will undoubtedly show tremendous numbers of such “mountains” which do not reach the sea surface.

Remains of Organisms. The hard skeletal structures of marine organisms are important constituents of marine sediments and certain types of deposits are almost entirely composed of the calcareous (calcium and magnesium carbonate) or siliceous (hydrated silica) remains of organisms. The skeletal structures are subject to mechanical disintegration and chemical transformation, the latter generally related to solution. In marine sediments calcareous or siliceous material may exist as easily recognizable complete specimens, broken pieces still identifiable, or at the other extreme, as a mass of small crystalline fragments of uncertain origin. The calcareous type of skeletal structures may be conveniently divided into two groups, plant and animal, and the


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same subdivision may be made for the siliceous type. In chapter VII the composition of certain skeletal materials was presented (p. 231), and further data of a similar kind will be discussed later (p. 991). Two groups of plants contribute calcareous material to the sediments: (1) single-celled planktonic forms belonging to the Coccolithophoridae, whose tiny structures called coccoliths and rhabdoliths are found in large quantities in certain deposits of the open sea, particularly in the Atlantic Ocean; and (2) the sessile calcareous algae which are particularly abundant at shallow depths in the warm waters of the lower latitudes. Calcareous algae are important contributors to the formation of coral reefs and in some areas are more abundant than the true corals. In some genera a definite skeleton is laid down having a specific form and structure; in others the deposition of calcium carbonate is apparently incidental and is due to precipitation of CaCO3 resulting from the removal of carbon dioxide from the water through photosynthesis (p. 208).

Calcareous structures of animal origin are in general more abundant than those of plants. Many floating forms contribute to the sediments, but foraminifera are most important and deposits containing large proportions of them are known as globigerina oozes or muds. The shells of planktonic mollusks, chiefly pteropods, are also abundant in certain regions. Pelagic animals also contribute to the sediments although never to the degree that the planktonic forms do. The more resistant bony structures of fish and marine mammals are sometimes found, particularly the teeth of sharks and fish and the earbones of whales.

The benthic animals, especially those living in relatively shallow water, contribute a great deal of the calcareous material in the sediments. This is particularly true in the lower latitudes and in regions where there is little or no supply of terrigenous debris. In these cases the bottom material may be almost entirely calcareous and the remains of various groups of bottom-living animals may be represented, namely: foraminifera, corals, worms, bryozoans, brachiopods, mollusks, echinoderms, arthropods, and vertebrates.

Siliceous skeletal materials do not form so important a constitutent of sediments as calcareous structures, but in certain localities they occur in such quantities that the deposits are known by the predominant type, for example, diatom and radiolarian ooze. The only forms of plant life secreting silica are the microscopic diatoms, which grow only within the euphotic layer either as free floating planktonic forms or in shallow water as benthic organisms. Diatoms are most abundant in high latitudes and in nearshore areas where upwelling or mixing is operative, and in such localities the frustules of certain of the forms may accumulate on the bottom so that the deposits are largely made up of them. Silica is also secreted by a group of protozoa, namely the radiolarians, whose


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highly ornate and complicated skeletons are sometimes abundant in marine sediments. Radiolarians are most numerous in lower latitudes, where so-called radiolarian oozes are sometimes found. Benthic animals, notably the sponges, secrete spicules of silica which are commonly found in the sediments but rarely in large amounts.

In many ways the most important contribution of marine organisms is not the hard skeletal structures which may be preserved in the sediments, but the decomposable organic matter which is continually falling from above. Below the compensation depth (p. 779) the benthic animals and bacteria are dependent upon this supply of food from above. It may consist of entire plants or animals, faecal material, and fragments of partially decomposed organisms. In both the latter categories it may be expected that it represents the more resistant types of organic materials originally forming a part of the living organisms. This is particularly true of chitin-, cellulose-, or ligninlike substances which form part of the skeletal structures. The detrital organic matter contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, and probably many other elements. The activity of the bacteria and bottom-living animals, particularly the mud-eaters, destroys much of this material and returns the constituent elements to solution in inorganic form. Marine sediments contain from virtually zero to about 18 per cent organic matter, the amount present depending upon a number of factors which will be discussed later. The deepest parts of core samples and even fossilbearing sedimentary rocks show the presence of organic matter, so that organic matter must be considered as a definite source of sedimentary material. An added interest to the problem of the supply and preservation of organic matter is that it is the source of petroleum formed from marine sediments. Although it has been implied that all the decomposable organic matter is of immediate marine origin, in certain localities such as in the Baltic Sea it is thought that a considerable proportion may be of terrigenous origin, representing the soil humus carried in by rivers.

Inorganic Precipitates. Inorganic precipitates are formed when the solubility product of some substance is exceeded. The immediate products of organic activity are excluded although the conditions necessary for precipitation of some substances may result from metabolic processes. Supersaturation may be induced by physical agencies such as temperature changes, it may be associated with the removal of carbon dioxide where photosynthesis occurs, or it may be related to changes in hydrogen-ion concentration or oxidation-reduction potential brought about by the organisms. In addition, precipitation may result from evaporation in isolated lagoons and seas.

Inorganic precipitates are never abundant in marine sediments but they may form conspicuous and diagnostically important components.


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The one exception to this statement is calcium carbonate, which is apparently precipitated directly from sea water in such localities as the Bahama Banks (Smith, 1940). Dolomite is also thought to form directly in the sediments (p. 1027). Many of the deposits of amorphous silica in the sedimentary rocks are believed to have an inorganic marine origin (Twenhofel, 1939), but there is no evidence that such material is accumulating on the sea floor at the present time. Iron and manganese oxides, largely in the form of concretions, are apparently the result of chemical precipitation (p. 1029 and p. 1031). Similarly, inorganic origin has been suggested for phosphatic and barite (BaSO4) nodules which occur in certain shallow-water areas (p. 1033). Under reducing conditions where H2S is present in the sediment or overlying water, ferrous sulphide (hydrotroilite) may precipitate (Galliher, 1933). This may be the precursor of pyrite or marcasite.

It is difficult to draw the boundaries between inorganic precipitates and those which are the direct result of biological activity and those materials which are considered to arise from the modification of minerals. Twenhofel (1939) has avoided this difficulty by considering them all as products of “chemical deposition.”

Products of Chemical Transformation. In this category are placed those substances which are formed by the interaction of sea water and solid particles. The interaction may be between the solid material and “normal” sea water or the reaction may be restricted to the interstitial water of the sediments where modified properties may exist (p. 995). It is difficult to designate many definite materials formed in this way, but undoubtedly such interactions occur, particularly when fresh unweathered materials of volcanic origin are brought in contact with sea water. Most detrital material carried to the sea has been subject to subaerial weathering, which is a continuous leaching process. In the sea the environment is much more uniform and, hence, an equilibrium may readily be established. Little is known concerning the processes of submarine breakdown of either terrigenous or volcanic material. Among those substances which may be the result of or involved in such transformations are glauconite, phosphorite, feldspar (Twenhofel, 1939), phillipsite, and the clay minerals.

Extraterrestrial Materials. In those marine sediments which accumulate at extremely slow rates, such as red clay, small black magnetic spherules and brown crystalline spherules are found. These are extremely rare and never form an appreciable part of the sediment. They were first discovered and described by Murray and Renard (1891). The black spherules are composed of iron or iron alloy and have diameters of about 0.2 mm. The brown type resemble the chondrite variety of meteorite and contain silicon. They commonly have a metallic luster and striated surface, and average about 0.5 mm in diameter.


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Marine Sedimentation
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