INTRODUCTION
The sea floor, being the place of accumulation of solid detrital material of inorganic or organic origin, is virtually covered with unconsolidated sediments; therefore, the study of materials found on the sea bottom falls largely within the field of sedimentation, and the methods of investigation employed are those used in this branch of geology. Twenhofel (1926) has defined sedimentation as
… including that portion of the metamorphic cycle from the separation of the particles from the parent rock, no matter what its origin or constitution, to and including their consolidation into another rock. Sedimentation thus involves a consideration of the sources from which the sediments are derived; the methods of transportation from the places of origin to those of deposition; the chemical and other changes taking place in the sediments from the times of their production to their ultimate consolidation; the climatic and other environmental conditions prevailing at the places of origin, over the regions through which transportation takes place, and in the places of deposition; the structures developed in connection with deposition and consolidation; and the horizontal and vertical variations of the sediments.
Marine sedimentation is therefore concerned with a wide range of problems, some of which are more or less unique to the sea, while others are of more general character. This discussion will deal with the first group and particular emphasis will be placed upon the “oceanographic” aspects of marine sediments. The methods of studying the character and composition of marine deposits are common to all types of sediments and, since readily available sources are cited in the text, will not be described here.
The importance of investigations in marine sedimentation is obvious when it is realized that most of the rocks exposed at the surface of the earth are sedimentary deposits laid down under the sea. In order to interpret the past history of the earth from these structures, it is necessary to determine the character of the material now being deposited in different environments. As the consolidated sediments generally contain fossils, it is of equal importance to determine the biological associations under different conditions and the character of the organic materials that may
A by-product of such studies as those mentioned above, but nevertheless of the greatest importance, is the knowledge gained concerning the history of the earth and phases of geochemistry and geology. In order to reconstruct the geological history of the earth, it is essential to obtain information on the rate of sedimentation in the oceans and to determine, either directly or indirectly, the total thickness, and hence the amount, of sediments which have been deposited in the sea. Recent research has shown that the sediments found in the deep waters of the North Atlantic are stratified, and, as stratification is related to variations in the source of material and transportational agencies, many possibilities are suggested for obtaining a better understanding of the past history of the earth. The geochemist is concerned with the chemical composition of the sediments, as they differ from the original source rocks and thus show a redistribution of the various elements, and the geologist is interested in the rate of sedimentation, as crustal movements may result from the changed distribution of mass.
In addition, many problems concerning marine sediments are of immediate significance to other phases of oceanography. To name but a few examples, the biologist is interested in the associations of organisms found in different environments on the sea bottom and the remains which may be preserved in the sediments. The occurrence of certain types of organisms has actually been deduced from their skeletal remains in the sediments before they were found living in the sea. Furthermore, the sea bottom is a zone of active breakdown of much of the detrital organic matter sinking to the bottom. From a study of the mechanisms controlling the transportation of sedimentary material it is hoped that the character of the sediments may actually be used as a measure of the water movements over the bottom.
The development of the study of marine sediments has been rapid. Sir John Murray is credited with the first intensive investigations, and his report on the Challenger material (Murray and Renard, 1891) set the pattern for many later investigations. His work was largely descriptive, identifying the various constituents and considering the source of the material. More recently, as newer methods of study—microscopical, chemical, and physical—have been developed, the character of the investigations has changed. The X-ray technique has made possible the identification of the fine-grained crystalline material which had earlier been classified as “amorphous” because it could not be recognized under the microscope. The question of precipitation and solution of calcium