2—
Dido's Guilt:
Anna:
Passion
Dido's love has first to fight against her sense of duty. Her conversation with her
sister (4.9ff.) allows us to witness that struggle, and the victory of love. Virgil has
used her traditional faithfulness to her first husband to create a conflict within Dido
herself which is of the greatest importance for the action. If Dido's death is to give
the impression of poetic justice, she must be burdened with some form of guilt. This
guilt lies in her deliberately violating the duty of fidelity which she herself regards
as binding.[16] It is pudor [a sense of shame] which makes the new marriage im-
possible for her, and which, only too easily persuaded by Anna's specious
126 arguments, she proceeds to disregard. Similarly, in Apollonius, it is
[a sense
of shame] that at first restrains Medea; but in her case it is only maidenly decorum
that prevents her from entering into a relationship with a strange man without her
parents' knowledge; when she has freed herself after a long struggle, she says of it
(3.784) [away with any sense of shame!]. Dido's pudor , on the other
hand, is something very different: it is a power which she acknowledges to be divine
and under divine protection. This is a specifically Roman way of thinking: a
woman's pudicitia corresponds as a moral ideal to a man's virtus , and of all our
evidence of the high regard in which the univira [a woman faithful to one husband]
was held,[17] none is more characteristic than the information that only 'matrons of
known modesty in their first and only marriage'[18] could make sacrifices at the altars
of Pudicitia. We know very well how far practice in Virgil's time fell short of this
ideal, but we may deduce from Virgil that, at least in the circles which still upheld
something of the old Roman values, the requirement as such was maintained. One
would dearly like to know the feelings with which Augustus heard these lines; he
was Livia's second husband and had been Scribonia's third;[19] but to judge by the
general tendency of his politics, and the way in which he kept his politics distinct
from his own private life, it is not at all unlikely that he took a sympathetic view of a
requirement which could only promote the reinstatement of the sanctity of marriage
which he strove after so passionately. In any case, Virgil intended to show that Dido
was a woman of the highest moral character by making her feel that this requirement
was a moral and religious duty; she fails in this duty after its basis, her love for her
first husband, has disappeared; but she does not escape the torture of a repentant
conscience (4.552) and she pays for her guilt by her death (457ff.); and she is
reunited with Sychaeus in the Underworld (6.474).
Tradition provided Dido with a sister, Anna. Virgil entrusts her with an important
127 rôle, important, however, for his narrative technique rather than for the development
of the action: the rôle of confidante. At first one is inclined to make comparisons
with Medea's sister, Chalciope, in Apollonius' poem, but she is a character who is
required by the action, and Medea does not confide in her: on the contrary, she hides
her personal feelings from her, and at the decisive moment, when she flees from her
country, she acts quite independently, without consulting her sister. Here, too, Apol-
lonius adheres strictly to the epic style. The confidante is a technical device,
invented for the purposes of the theatre, taken over as a stock figure by classicizing
tragedy from ancient tragedy ( Medea , Phaedra etc.). Her function is to allow the
audience to discover things which only one character can and does know; in this
way the author can share her hidden feelings with the spectator, and create and
overcome objections, without continually falling back on the device of the mono-
logue.[20] The epic poet can use narrative instead of monologue, or alternate the two, a
technique which Apollonius himself uses with great success. Virgil reserves mono-
logue for the emotional climaxes of his narrative; in the earlier stages of the Dido
episode he makes use of the confidante to transform epic narrative into dramatic
action. Virgil's confidante is not the trusty nurse or maidservant who stands at the
heroine's side in drama and who so often acts as the go-between in the romantic
literature of the Hellenistic age,[21] serving her mistress' passion with blind obe-
dience, taking no heed of duty or honour. There is usually something rather vulgar
about this figure, and anything of that kind would be inconsistent with Virgil's
concept of the elevated style that epic demands. He may on one occasion send the
nutrix [nurse] (Barce 4.632) on an errand, but her status is too inferior to that of the
128 queen for her to have any influence on her decisions, or to receive her humiliating
confessions and convey her requests to Aeneas: but Anna, the unanima soror [like-
minded sister], is ideal for all these purposes. Virgil also makes use of her to raise
the emotional level of the final scene, and to portray the effect of the terrible event,
something that he regarded as very important in every emotional scene: here the
grief of the deceived and forsaken sister (675ff.), in whose arms Dido is dying,
intensifies the effect that her death has on the reader. Of course, it is possible to
imagine what Book 4 would be like without the figure of Anna; it would not affect
the action to any great extent; but from an artistic point of view she is of great
importance, and it can hardly be true that it was only at a later stage that Virgil
added the scenes in which Anna appears;[22] since Virgil envisaged the action in
dramatic form from the very beginning, the confidante too had a place in it from the
very beginning.
Dido has confided in her sister in order to unburden her anxious heart. She feels
the power of new love growing within her, but she feels that it is wrong to yield to it,
and with a fearful oath she affrms her apparently steadfast resolve to resist it, as if
to give herself something to cling to; thus she herself pronounces judgement on
herself in advance. Anna, the unanima soror , knows very well what is really going
on in her sister's mind, and seeks to dispel her scruples, principally by representing
the fulfilment of her heart's desire as politically advantageous, indeed her royal
duty. But in view of Dido's religious scruples, she first suggests that she should
assure herself of Juno's approval by seeking her venia [pardon], or pax [peace], as
129 Virgil calls it a few lines later;[23] this then becomes the sisters' first concern. Once
the favourable outcome of the sacrifice has released Dido from religio [religious
scruple], she is freed from her doubts and scruples, and is able to work with a clear
conscience towards the fulfilment of her desires, and in the first place to seek to gain
time: then the rest will come about of its own accord. We now hear (56ff.) that Dido
follows her sister's advice with the utmost eagerness, and is insatiable in her praying
and sacrificing; she turns above all to Juno, cui vincla iugalia curae [who is con-
cerned with the bonds of marriage], who is able to dissolve the bonds of a former
marriage and validate a new one. She tries to read the will of the gods in the entrails
of the sacrificial animals.[24] But what is the result of these sacrifices? Are the entrails
favourable or unfavourable? Virgil does not tell us, and so his interpreters have
maintained both views with equal conviction and with equal justification. The fact is
that Virgil has evaded a difficulty at this point in a rather radical way. We know
from the final outcome that the sacrifices cannot have been favourable; otherwise
the gods would have been deceiving Dido, or the seer must have been mistaken. On
the other hand, if Juno is prepared to go straight ahead and ratify the marriage about
which they were consulting her, then the poet cannot possibly say that she refused to
130 accept the sacrifice. So he deliberately leaves the question unresolved. It does not
matter what the vates [seers] announce; they have no idea what is really agitating
Dido's mind,[25] and they no doubt believe that prayers and vows can calm her down,
when in fact she has been seized by the frenzy of love, and the flames of love are
consuming the marrow of her bones (65-7).
The symptoms of this passion, which are described in lines 68ff., are familiar to
us from the romantic literature of the Hellenistic period: torment and restlessness;
pretexts for being at least in the company of her beloved;[26] she stammers in his
presence;[27] she cannot hear enough of his voice; even when he is absent she still sees
and hears no-one but him; [28] even at night she can find no rest;[29] and all the time she
neglects the completion of her newly-founded city, to which her days have pre-
viously been devoted.[30] But Virgil is careful to avoid anything which might reduce
this heroic passion to the level of the sentimental and bourgeois, and he scorns
details which are better suited to the miniature technique of the epyllion than to the
131 broad strokes of the epic. Nor does the action stand still while Dido's symptoms are
described, for we hear what else is taking place in Carthage, how Dido's subjects
cannot remain unaware of her passion, and how her reputation is beginning to be
sullied (91); Juno therefore, in order to prevent anything worse and at the same time
to serve her own purposes, forms the plan of ratifying the marriage.[31]
The cave in which Aeneas and Dido seek shelter from the storm had its predeces-
sor in the famous cave on Corcyra, which served Jason and Medea as a bridal
chamber. There, too, according to Apollonius 4.1141ff., the nymphs sent by Hera
enhanced the glory of the celebration. This passage may have been the source of
Virgil's inspiration;[32] his mastery can be seen in the natural way in which he
motivates what comes about because of the will of the gods, in the vivid descriptions
of the splendid hunt and of the storm, and above all in the few lines (166-8) devoted
to the fateful wedding, at which flashes of lightning serve as torches and the joyful
cries of the nymphs high up on the wooded mountains serve as the wedding song.
As Virgil describes the hunt in detail and in magnificent colours, we might imagine
that he is merely using the resources of epic style, which glories in description for its
own sake; but the passage also has a deeper meaning: the pair are riding forth as if in
a wedding-procession, regally attired, glowing as though with youthful desire, with
a splendid retinue, and Virgil has sensed the tragic contrast, that Dido appears to us
in radiant happiness for the last time on the day which will fulfil her heart's desire
but which will also prove to be 'the first day of her death' (169).
132