1. I owe to Adam Przeworski and Michael Wallerstein the notion that the bourgeoisie never completed its first revolution. See "Democratic Capitalism at the Crossroads," democracy 2 (July 1982): 52-68. [BACK]

2. An interesting study of the anticapitalist inclinations of many British capitalists may be found in Martin J. Weiner, English Culture and the Decline of the Industrial Spirit, 1850-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981). [BACK]

3. Joan W. Scott and Louise A. Tilly, "Women's Work and the Family in Nineteenth Century Europe," Comparative Studies in Society and History 17 (January 1975): 36-64. [BACK]

4. Ibid., 50, 59. [BACK]

5. Louise A. Tilly and Joan W. Scott, Women, Work, and Family (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1978), 214. [BACK]

6. See Diana Pearce, "The Feminization of Poverty: Women, Work, and Welfare," Urban and Social Change Review 11 (Winter-Summer 1978): 28-36; and Barbara Ehrenreich and Frances Fox Piven, "The Feminization of Poverty: When the Family Wage System Breaks Down," Dissent 31 (Spring 1984): 162-70. [BACK]

7. Paul Blumberg, Inequality in an Age of Decline (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 90, 92. [BACK]

8. Kathleen Gerson, Hard Choices: How Women Decide About Work, Career, and Motherhood (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985), 70-74, 77-80. [BACK]

9. For a study of how women decide among different contraceptive (and non-contraceptive) options, see Kristin Luker, Taking Chances: Abortion and the Decision Not to Contracept (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1975). In the 1980s, however, worries about the pill, corporate efforts to remove IUDs from the market, and changing attitudes toward abortion have made completely free choice in birth control a thing of the past for many women. break [BACK]

10. Rosanna Hertz, More Equal Than Others: Women and Men in Dual-Career Marriages (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986), 118. On delayed childbearing in demographic terms, see Roland R. Rindfuss, S. Philip Morgan, and Gary Swicegood, First Births in America: Changes in the Timing of Parenthood (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988), 65-74. [BACK]

11. Gerson, Hard Choices, 167-68. [BACK]

12. Linda J. Waite and Ross M. Stolzenberg, "Intended Childbearing and Labor Force Participation of Young Women," American Sociological Review 41 (April 1976): 235-52; and James C. Cramer, "Fertility and Female Employment: Problems of Causal Direction," American Sociological Review 45 (April 1980): 167-90. [BACK]

13. David M. Schneider and Raymond T. Smith, Class Differences and Sex Roles in American Kinship and Family Structure (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1973), 42. [BACK]

14. Shirley S. Angrist, Judith R. Lave, and Richard Mickelsen, "How Working Mothers Manage: Socioeconomic Differences in Work, Childcare, and Household Tasks," Social Science Quarterly 56 (March 1976): 631-37. [BACK]

15. Andrew J. Cherlin and Frank R. Furstenberg, Jr., The New American Grandparent: A Place in the Family, a Life Apart (New York: Basic Books, 1986), 127-31. [BACK]

16. Schneider and Smith, Class Differences, 42. [BACK]

17. Gerson, Hard Choices, 185. [BACK]

18. Hertz, More Equal Than Others, 151. [BACK]

19. Andrew J. Cherlin, Marriage, Divorce, Remarriage (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), 34. [BACK]

20. Glen H. Elder, Jr., Children of the Great Depression: Social Change in the Life Experience (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974). [BACK]

21. Glen H. Elder, Jr., and Richard C. Rockwell, "Economic Depression and Postwar Opportunity in Men's Lives," in Research on Community Mental Health, ed. R. A. Simmons (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1979), 1:249-303. [BACK]

22. Glen H. Elder, Jr., "Social History and the Life Experience," in Present and Past in Middle Life, ed. Dorothy H. Eichorn et al. (New York: Academic Press, 1981), 3-31. [BACK]

23. Jeffrey K. Liker and Glen H. Elder, Jr., "Economic Hardship and Marital Relations in the 1930s," American Sociological Review 48 (June 1983): 343-59. [BACK]

24. Carol B. Stack, All Our Kin: Strategies for Survival in a Black Community (New York: Harper and Row, 1974). [BACK]

25. Philip Blumstein and Pepper Schwartz, American Couples: Money, Work, Sex (New York: William Morrow, 1983), 189. [BACK]

26. Lenore J. Weitzman, The Divorce Revolution: The Unexpected Social and Economic Consequences for Women and Children in America (New York: Free Press, 1985), x, 370. [BACK]

27. Ibid., 374. [BACK]

28. Cherlin, Marriage, Divorce, 74. break [BACK]

29. Judith S. Wallerstein and Joan Berlin Kelly, Surviving the Breakup: How Children and Parents Cope with Divorce (New York: Basic Books, 1980), 206-34. [BACK]

30. Cherlin, Marriage, Divorce, 79. [BACK]

31. Frank F. Furstenberg et al., "The Life Course of Children of Divorce," American Sociological Review 48 (October 1983): 667. [BACK]

32. Arthur Kornhaber, "Grandparenthood and the 'New Social Contract,'" in Grandparenthood, ed. Vern L. Bengston and Joan F. Robertson (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1985), 159. [BACK]

33. Lillian Troll and Vern Bengston, "Generations and the Family," in Contemporary Theories of the Family, ed. Wesley R. Burr et al. (New York: Free Press, 1979), 1:127-61; Amy Horowitz, "Sons and Daughters as Caregivers to Older Parents," The Gerontologist 25 (December 1985): 612-17; and Bertram J. Cohler and Henry V. Grunebaum, Mothers, Grandmothers, Daughters (New York: John Wiley, 1981). [BACK]

35. Ibid., 57, 41, 96, 167, 176, 206. [BACK]

36. All these factors may help explain why the gap in happiness between married and unmarried couples has been decreasing. See Norval D. Glenn and Charles N. Weaver, "The Changing Relationship of Marital Status to Reported Happiness," Journal of Marriage and the Family 50 (May 1988): 817-24. [BACK]

37. Included here is, most prominently, Gary Becker; see A Treatise on the Family (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981). [BACK]

38. William J. Goode, perhaps the leading theorist of the family in American sociology, "welcomes" what he calls the Chicago school "invasion" of sociology, yet also warns sociologists to "turn away from the deficiencies in that approach and instead build into our basic schema of action itself the variables and factors that economics leaves out." For his welcome, see "Comment: The Economics of Nonmonetary Variables," in The Economics of the Family, ed. Theodore W. Schultz (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974), 346; for his warning, see "Individual Choice and the Social Order,'' in The Social Fabric: Dimensions and Issues, ed. James F. Short (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1986), 58. [BACK]

39. Joseph Veroff, Elizabeth Douvan, and Richard A. Kulka, The Inner American: A Self-portrait from 1957 to 1976 (New York: Basic Books, 1981), 140-41. [BACK]

40. Kai Erikson, Everything in Its Path: Destruction of Community in the Buffalo Creek Flood (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1976), 13. [BACK]

41. Actually, given the inclination of most sociologists to want to counter conventional wisdom, there is a strain in the field that emphasizes how much small-town life was affected by the Gesellschaft features of modern life. See Arthur Vidich and Joseph Bensman, Small Town in Mass Society: Class, Power, and Religion in a Rural Community (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1968). [BACK]

42. William Kornblum, Blue Collar Community (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974); Gerald D. Suttles, The Social Order of the Slum: Ethnicity and Territory in the Inner City (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968); and Her- soft

bert Gans, The Urban Villagers: Group and Class in the Life of Italian-Americans (New York: Free Press, 1962). [BACK]

43. On the claim that the advance of modernity need not lead to the decline of community, see Thomas Bender, Community and Social Change in America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1982); Claude Fischer, To Dwell Among Friends: Personal Networks in Town and City (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); and the literature cited by both. Other recent treatments include Barry Wellman, "The Community Question: The Intimate Networks of East Yorkers," American Journal of Sociology 84 (March 1979): 1201-31, which deals with Toronto; and Barrett A. Lee et al., "Testing the Decline of Community Thesis," American Journal of Sociology 89 (March 1984): 1161-88. [BACK]

44. Bender, Community and Social Change, 7, 113-14. [BACK]

45. Peter M. Wolf, Land in America: Its Value, Use, and Control (New York: Pantheon Books, 1981), 19. [BACK]

46. Henry J. Aaron, Shelter and Subsidies: Who Benefits from Federal Housing Projects? (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1972). [BACK]

47. Gwendolyn Wright, Building the Dream: A Social History of Housing in America (New York: Pantheon Books, 1981), 244. [BACK]

48. Quoted in Matthew Edel, Elliott D. Sclar, and Daniel Luria, Shaky Palaces: Homeownership and Social Mobility in Boston's Suburbanization (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984), 345. [BACK]

49. David Harvey, "The Political Economy of Urbanization in Advanced Capitalism," in The Social Economy of Cities, ed. Gary Gappbert and Harold M. Rose (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1975), 153. [BACK]

50. Fischer, To Dwell Among Friends, 216. [BACK]

51. Mark S. Granovetter, "The Strength of Weak Ties," American Journal of Sociology 78 (May 1973): 1378. [BACK]

52. Fischer, To Dwell Among Friends, 88. [BACK]

53. Freddie Mac Reports (May 1984): 6. [BACK]

54. Ibid. (June 1987): 4. [BACK]

55. Data collected from Freddie Mac Reports, all issues 1984-86; Marshall Dennis, Residential Mortgage Lending (Reston, Va.: Reston Publishing Company, 1985); and "Adjustable Rate Financing in Mortgage and Consumer Credit Markets," Federal Reserve Bulletin 71 (November 1985): 823-35. It has been reported that 70 percent of new home loans in early 1988 were adjustable; see Francine Schwadel and Robert Johnson, "More Consumers Find Variable-Rate Loans a Burden as Rates Rise," Wall Street Journal, 3 June 1988, 1. [BACK]

56. Freddie Mac Reports (November 1985): 2. [BACK]

57. Ibid. (June 1987): 6. [BACK]

58. Ibid. (December 1984): 6. [BACK]

59. Harvey Molotch and John R. Logan, "Urban Dependencies: New Forms of Use and Exchange in U.S. Cities," Urban Affairs Quarterly 21 (December 1985): continue

143-69 . See also Logan and Molotch, Urban Futures: The Political Economy of Place (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1987). [BACK]

60. For comments by San Franciscans worried about Manhattanization, see David M. Hummon, "Urban Views: Popular Perspectives on City Life," Urban Life 15 (April 1986): 23. [BACK]

61. An ethnographic account of the implications of the economic downturn for Elizabeth is contained in Katherine S. Newman, "Turning Your Back on Tradition: Symbolic Analysis and Moral Critique in a Plant Shutdown," Urban Anthropology 14 (Spring-Summer-Fall 1985): 109-50, esp. p. 141. Similar comments concerning the area around Elizabeth can be found in David Halle, America's Working Man: Work, Home, and Politics Among Blue-Collar Property Owners (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984). [BACK]

62. William R. Freudenberg, "Boomtown's Youth: The Differential Impacts of Rapid Community Growth on Adolescents and Adults," American Sociological Review 49 (October 1984): 697-705. [BACK]

63. Richard S. Krannich, Thomas Greider, and Ronald L. Little, "Rapid Growth and Fear of Crime," Rural Sociology 50 (Summer 1985): 193-209. [BACK]

64. Alan C. Acock and Forrest A. Deseran, "Off-Farm Employment by Women and Marital Instability," Rural Sociology 51 (Fall 1986): 314-27. [BACK]

65. J. Lynn England and Stan L. Albrecht, "Boomtowns and Social Disruption," Rural Sociology 49 (Summer 1984): 230-46. [BACK]

66. P. D. Rosenblatt and L. O. Keller, "Economic Vulnerability and Economic Stress in Farm Couples," Family Relations 32 (October 1983): 567-73. [BACK]

67. See Kenneth P. Wilkinson, "Rurality and Patterns of Social Disruption," Rural Sociology 49 (Spring 1984): 23-36; and Steven Stack, "The Effects of Marital Dissolution on Suicide," Journal of Marriage and the Family 42 (February 1980): 83-91. [BACK]

68. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Indicators of the Farm Sector: State Financial Summary, 1985 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1987), 112; and American Banker's Association data, cited in U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Finance: Situation and Outlook Report (March 1986): 20 and (March 1987): 26. [BACK]

69. Kenneth P. Wilkinson, "In Search of Community in the Changing Countryside," Rural Sociology 51 (Spring 1986): 1-17. See also Wilkinson, "Changing Rural Communities," In Handbook of Community Mental Health, ed. Peter A. Keller and J. Dennis Murray (New York: Human Sciences Press, 1982), 20-28. [BACK]

70. Gary P. Green, "Credit and Agriculture: Some Consequences of the Centralization of the Banking system," Rural Sociology 49 (Winter 1984): 568-79. [BACK]

71. Andrew H. Malcolm, Final Harvest: An American Tragedy (New York: Times Books, 1986), 28. [BACK]

72. For elaborations on these points, see James S. Duncan, ed., Housing and Identity: Cross-cultural Perspectives (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1982). break [BACK]

73. Constance Perin, Everything in Its Place: Social Order and Land Use in America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977), 3. [BACK]

74. Herbert J. Gans, The Levittowners: Ways of Life and Politics in a New Suburban Community (New York: Vintage Books, 1967), 179. [BACK]

75. Mark Baldassare, Trouble in Paradise: The Suburban Transformation in America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), 101-68. [BACK]

76. See Dirk Johnson, "Suburban Fire and Rescue Services Have Worrisome Volunteer Shortage," New York Times, 19 May 1986, pt. 2, p. 1. [BACK]

77. Kenneth B. Perkins, "Volunteer Firefighters in the United States" (Unpublished report to the National Volunteer Fire Council, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Longwood College, Farmville, Virginia, 13 August 1987). [BACK]

78. Ira Katznelson and Margaret Weir, Schooling for All: Class, Race, and the Decline of the Democratic Ideal (New York: Basic Books, 1985), 24. [BACK]

79. The leading historian of this effort is Michael Katz, from The Irony of Early School Reform: Educational Innovation in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Massachusetts (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968) to Reconstructing American Education (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987). [BACK]

80. The major critique of the revisions may be found in Diana Ravitch, The Revisionists Revised: A Critique of the Radical Attack on the Schools (New York: Basic Books, 1978). I also found helpful in correcting an overemphasis on economic explanations of educational institutions Richard Rubinson, "Class Formation, Politics, and Institutions: Schooling in the United States," American Journal of Sociology 92 (November 1986): 519-48. [BACK]

81. David Tyack and Elizabeth Hansot, Managers of Virtue: Public School Leadership in America, 1820-1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1982), 28-62. [BACK]

82. John W. Meyer et al., "Public Education as Nation Building in America," American Journal of Sociology 85 (November 1979): 601. [BACK]

83. James S. Coleman, Thomas Hoffer, and Sally Kilgore, High School Achievement: Public, Private, and Catholic High Schools Compared (New York: Basic Books, 1982). For updated data, see Coleman and Hoffer, Public and Private High Schools: The Impact of Communities (New York: Basic Books, 1987). [BACK]

84. The critical literature on the Coleman study is in fact voluminous, and not all or even a substantial part of it can be cited here. For a representative sample of the debate, see Karl L. Alexander and Aaron M. Pallas, "Private Schools and Public Policy," Sociology of Education 56 (October 1983): 170-82; and Sally Kilgore, "Schooling Effects: Reply to Alexander and Pallas," Sociology of Education 57 (January 1984): 59-61. [BACK]

85. Among the most exclusive private schools--the boarding schools that train the predominantly Protestant elite--parents purchase private education, often at high cost; paradoxically, though, the schools teach not individualistic values associated with the market, but instead rituals, bonding, loyalty, and other primarily "nonrational" values. See Peter W. Cookson, Jr., and Caroline Hodges Persell, Pre- soft

paring for Power: America's Elite Boarding School (New York: Basic Books, 1985), 22-26, 106. [BACK]

86. Barbara Falsey and Barbara Heyns, "The College Channel," Sociology of Education 57 (April 1984): 111-22. [BACK]

87. Laura Hersh Salganik and Nancy Karweit, "Voluntarism and Governance in Education," Sociology of Education 55 (April-July 1982): 152-61. [BACK]

88. Bruce S. Cooper, "The Changing Universe of U.S. Private Schools" (Stanford University, Institute for Research on Educational Finance and Governance, November 1985, mimeo), 30, 34. [BACK]

89. See Alan Peshkin, God's Choice: The Total World of a Fundamentalist Christian School (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986). [BACK]

90. Thomas James and Henry M. Levin, eds., Public Dollars for Private Schools: The Case of Tuition Tax Credits (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1983). See also Henry M. Levin, "Education as a Public and Private Good," Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 6 (Summer 1987): 628-41; and Michael Krashinsky, "Why Educational Vouchers May Be Bad Economics," Teachers College Record 88 (Winter 1986): 139-51. [BACK]

91. Katznelson and Weir, Schooling for All, 216. [BACK]

92. Arthur G. Powell, Eleanor Farrar, and David K. Cohen, The Shopping Mall High School (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1985), 77. [BACK]

93. Noah Lewin-Epstein, Youth Employment During High School (Washington: National Center for Education Statistics, 1981), cited in Ellen Greenberger and Laurence Steinberg, When Teenagers Work: The Psychological and Social Costs of Adolescent Employment (New York: Basic Books, 1986), 16. [BACK]

94. Before children became "priceless" in America, they were often expected to turn over any wages they made in a sealed envelope to their parents; see Viviana Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child: The Changing Social Value of Children (New York: Basic Books, 1985), 101. [BACK]

95. Greenberger and Steinberg, When Teenagers Work, 10-46. [BACK]

96. Powell, Farrar, and Cohen, Shopping Mall High School, 77. [BACK]

97. Greenberger and Steinberg, When Teenagers Work, 51. [BACK]

98. Powell, Farrar, and Cohen, Shopping Mall Eigh School, 39, 41. [BACK]

99. Ibid., 56, 93. [BACK]

100. Robert Hampel, The Last Little Citadel: American High Schools Since 1940 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1986), 2. [BACK]

101. In general, see Robert W. Poole, Jr., and Philip E. Fixler, Jr., "Privatization of Public-Sector Services in Practice," Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 6 (Summer 1987): 612-25; and Stephen H. Hanke, ed., Prospects for Privatization (New York: Academy of Political Science, 1987). On prisons, see Joan Mullen, "Corrections and the Private Sector," Research in Brief (National Institute of Justice) (March 1985): 4. Biotherapeutics, Inc., which opened in 1985, is the only private for-profit cancer research business in the United States; see Robin Marantz Hening, continue

"In Business to Treat Cancer," New York Times Magazine, 23 November 1986, 68-70, 78-86. [BACK]

102. Stuart M. Butler, Privatizing Public Spending: A Strategy to Eliminate the Deficit (New York: Universe Books, 1985), 136-40. [BACK]

103. Poole and Fixler, "Privatization," 620-21. Sweden has already begun to implement such a technology; see International Herald Tribune, 17 March 1988, 2. [BACK]

104. See, e.g., Isabel Wilkerson, "Schools of Social Work Swamped by Applicants," New York Times, 9 November 1987, A18. [BACK]

105. For evidence on this point, see Norval D. Glenn, "Social Trends in the United States: Evidence from Sample Surveys," Public Opinion Quarterly (Winter 1987), S109-S126. [BACK]

106. Veroff, Douvan, and Kulka, Inner American, 118. [BACK]