1. For an overview, see Gabriel A. Almond, Marvin Chodorow, and Roy Harvey Pearce, eds., Progress and Its Discontents (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982). [BACK]

2. See Michael Ignatieff, The Needs of Strangers: An Essay on Privacy, Solidarity, and the Politics of Being Human (New York: Penguin Books, 1985). [BACK]

3. See Seyla Benhabib, ''The Generalized and Concrete Other," in Women and Moral Theory, ed. Eva Kittay and Diane Meyers (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1988), 154-77. [BACK]

4. William Sullivan, Reconstructing Public Philosophy (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982), 95. [BACK]

5. Robert E. Goodin, Protecting the Vulnerable: A Reanalysis of Our Social Responsibilities (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985). [BACK]

6. Lionel Trilling, The Liberal Imagination (New York: Viking Press, 1950), 222. [BACK]

7. John Gardner, On Moral Fiction (New York: Basic Books, 1978). [BACK]

8. E. M. Forster, Two Cheers for Democracy (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1951), 57. [BACK]

9. E. M. Forster, Howard's End (London: Penguin Books, 1971), 179. [BACK]

10. Various explorations of the relationship between morality and the social sciences have recently begun to appear. See, e.g., Norma Haan, Robert Bellah, Paul Rabinow, and William M. Sullivan, Social Science as Moral Inquiry (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983); Amartya Sen, On Ethics and Economics (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1987); and the literature discussed at greater length in Chapter 8 below. [BACK]

11. One work in modern social science which argues that too great a centralization of authority will undermine sources of regeneration is Joseph Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy (New York: Harper, 1950). For the views of an economist who argues the other point--that the sum total of anarchic individual continue

decisions can cause a breakdown of the capitalist order--see Fred Hirsch, Social Limits to Growth (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976). [BACK]

12. Milton Friedman, Capitalism and Freedom (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), 13. [BACK]

13. Geoffrey Brennan and James M. Buchanan, The Reason of Rules: Constitutional Political Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 3. [BACK]

14. Gary Becker, The Economic Approach to Human Behavior (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), 5. [BACK]

15. Dennis H. Wrong, "The Oversocialized Conception of Man in Modern Sociology," American Sociological Review 26 (April 1961): 183-93. [BACK]

16. Benjamin Barber, Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984), 173-78. [BACK]

17. Charles Schultze, The Public Use of Private Interest (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1977), 18. [BACK]

18. Lawrence M. Baskir and William A. Strauss, Chance and Circumstance: The Draft, the War, and the Vietnam Generation (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1978). [BACK]

19. Charles C. Moskos, "Citizen Soldier Versus Economic Man," in The Social Fabric, ed. James F. Short, Jr. (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1986), 245. [BACK]

20. Milton Friedman, "Why Not a Volunteer Army?" and Walter Oi, "The Costs and Implications of an All Volunteer Force," in The Draft, ed. Sol Tax (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967), 200-207, 221-51. [BACK]

21. This influence of the "only available job" is why the army became disproportionately black when it relied on the market to recruit. See Charles C. Moskos, "Social Considerations of the All-Volunteer Force," in Military Service in the United States, ed. Brent Scowcroft (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1982), 129-50; and Martin Binkin et al., Blacks and the Military (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1982). [BACK]

22. Morris Janowitz and Charles C. Moskos, "Five Years of the All-Volunteer Force: 1973-1978," Armed Forces and Society 5 (February 1979): 171-218; and Charles C. Moskos and John H. Faris, "Beyond the Marketplace: National Service and the AVF," in Towards a Consensus on Military Policy, ed. Andrew J. Goodpaster, Lloyd H. Elliott, and J. Allan Hovey (New York: Pergamon Press, 1981), 131-51. [BACK]

23. Amy Gutmann, Democratic Education (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1987), 61. [BACK]

24. Albert O. Hirschman, Shifting Involvements: Private Interest and Public Action (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982). [BACK]

25. Peter L. Berger, The Capitalist Revolution: Fifty Propositions About Prosperity, Equality, and Liberty (New York: Basic Books, 1986), 20. [BACK]

26. Adam Ferguson, An Essay on the History of Civil Society (Philadelphia: Wm. Fry, 1819), 32. [BACK]

27. Ibid., 33. [BACK]

28. Quoted in David Frisby and Derek Sayer, Society (London: Tavistock, 1986), 23. break [BACK]

29. Quoted in Ignatieff, Needs of Strangers, 92.

30. Ignatieff (ibid., 83-87) recounts the story of Hume's secular death as told by Boswell and Adam Smith. [BACK]

29. Quoted in Ignatieff, Needs of Strangers, 92.

30. Ignatieff (ibid., 83-87) recounts the story of Hume's secular death as told by Boswell and Adam Smith. [BACK]

31. Alasdair MacIntyre, A Short History of Ethics (New York: Collier Books, 1966), 179. [BACK]

32. David Hume, "An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding," in Essays: Moral, Political, and Literary, ed. T. H. Greene and T. H. Grose (London: Longmans Green, 1875), 2:72-73. [BACK]

33. T. M. Knox, Hegel's Philosophy of Right (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), 123. [BACK]

34. Among conservatives, for example, the concept of "mediating structures" bears some resemblance to civil society. See Peter Berger and Richard John Neuhaus, To Empower People: The Role of Mediating Structures in Public Policy (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1977); for a left perspective, see John Keane, Democracy and Civil Society (London: Verso, 1988). Also relevant to this discussion are Torben Hviid Nielsen, "The State, the Market, and the Individual," Acta Sociologica 29, no. 4 (1986): 283-302, and Nielsen, Samfund og magt (Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag, 1988), 81-101. [BACK]

35. Claude Lefort, The Political Forms of Modern Society (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1986), 285. [BACK]

36. For a collection of writings emphasizing this point, see John Keane, ed., Civil Society and the State (London: Verso, 1988). [BACK]

37. Georg Konrad, Antipolitics (London: Quartet Books, 1984), 92. [BACK]

38. Adam Michnik, Letters from Prison and Other Essays (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985), 124. [BACK]

39. For a review of a large body of literature showing the importance of social support networks organized by neither the market nor the state, see Marc Pilisuk and Susan Hillier Parks, The Healing Web: Social Networks and Human Survival (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1986). [BACK]

40. Jürgen Habermas, Theory of Communicative Action, vol. 1: Reason and the Rationality of Society, trans. Thomas McCarthy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1984). [BACK]

1. Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations (New York: Modern Library, 1937), 17. [BACK]

2. Bernard Barber, "Absolutization of the Market: Some Notes on How We Got From There to Here," in Markets and Morals, ed. Gerald Dworkin, Gordon Bermant, and Peter G. Brown (New York: John Wiley, 1977), 19-20. [BACK]

3. An examination of the economy of Smith's Scotland reveals modest growth, but primarily in the agricultural sector. See T. C. Smout, "Where Had the Scottish Economy Got to by the Third Quarter of the Eighteenth Century?" in Wealth and Virtue, ed. Istvan Hont and Michael Ignatieff (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 45-72. break [BACK]

4. Nathan Rosenberg and L. E. Birdsell, Jr., How The West Grew Rich: The Economic Transformation of the Industrial World (New York: Basic Books, 1986), 183. [BACK]

5. Irving Kristol, "Rationalism in Economics," in The Crisis in Economic Theory, ed. Daniel Bell and Irving Kristol (New York: Basic Books, 1981), 206. [BACK]

6. It is now generally recognized that Adam Smith's moral philosophy was far more complex than a simple defense of self-interest. See, e.g., J. Ralph Lindgren, The Social Philosophy of Adam Smith (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1973); and Hans Medick, Naturzustand und Naturgeschichte der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1973), 171-295. For a slightly different interpretation, see Nicholas Phillipson, "Adam Smith as Civil Moralist," in Hont and Ignatieff, Wealth and Virtue, 179-202. [BACK]

7. Smith, The Wealth of Nations, 14, 13. [BACK]

8. Adam Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, ed. D. D. Raphael and A. L. Macfie (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976), 9, 21, 61. [BACK]

9. Allan Silver, "Friendship in Social Theory: Personal Relations in Classical Liberalism" (unpublished paper, January 1987), 12, 29. The quotes from Smith are cited by Silver from The Theory of Moral Sentiments . [BACK]

10. Among the important documents are Herbert A. Simon, "Theories of Decision-making in Economics and Behavioral Science," American Economic Review 49 (June 1959): 253-83; Kenneth Arrow, "Risk Perception in Psychology and Economics," Economic Inquiry 20 (January 1982): 1-9; Harvey Leibenstein, Beyond Economic Man: A New Foundation for Economics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); William J. Baumol, Welfare Economics and the Theory of the State, 2d rev. ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965); and Francis M. Bator, "The Anatomy of Market Failure," Quarterly Journal of Economics 72 (August 1958): 351-79. The best critiques of neoclassical economic assumptions, in my opinion, are Martin Hollis and Edward J. Nell, Rational Economic Man: A Philosophical Critique of Neo-classical Economics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975); and Amartya Sen, "Rational Fools," in Choice, Welfare, and Measurement, ed. Sen (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1982), 84-106. [BACK]

11. On the question of perfect information, see Armen A. Alchian and Harold Demsetz, "Production, Information Costs, and Economic Information," American Economic Review 62 (December 1972): 777-95; and Sanford J. Grossman and Joseph E. Stiglitz, "On the Impossibility of Informationally Efficient Markets," American Economic Review 70 (June 1980): 393-408. On hierarchical and institutional decision-making, see, e.g., Oliver Williamson, The Economic Institutions of Capitalism (New York: Free Press, 1985). [BACK]

12. This similarity of interest may help explain why at least some Marxist economists praise the research methodology of Chicago School economists. See John Roemer, ed., Analytical Marxism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). [BACK]

13. On marriage, see Gary Becker, The Economic Approach to Human Behavior (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), 205-50; on immigration, Julian L. Simon, "Auction the Right to Be an Immigrant," New York Times, 28 January 1986, continue

A25; on credit, Stephen M. Crafton, "An Empirical Test of the Effect of Usury Laws," Journal of Law and Economics 23 (April 1980): 135-45; on selling body parts, Lori B. Andrews, "My Body, My Property," Hastings Center Report 16 (October 1986): 28-38; on service and long lines, Francis T. Lui, "An Equilibrium Queuing Model of Bribery," Journal of Political Economy 93 (August 1985): 760-81; on surrogate motherhood, Anthony D'Amato, "Surrogate Motherhood Should be Privatized" (letter), New York Times, 3 March 1987, A26; and on suicide, Daniel S. Hammermesh and Neal M. Soss, "An Economic Theory of Suicide,'' Journal of Political Economy 82 (January--February 1974): 83-98, quote p. 85. [BACK]

14. On the Marxist approach to morality, see Steven Lukes, Marxism and Morality (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985). [BACK]

15. Murray Rothbard, Man, Economy, and State (Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand, 1962), 1:443, cited in Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (New York: Basic Books, 1974), 86; and Nozick, ibid., 85. [BACK]

16. John Kay, "Discussion," Economic Policy 6 (April 1988): 187-89, quote p. 188; and David F. Larcker and Thomas Lys, "An Empirical Analysis of the Incentives to Engage in Costly Information Acquisition," Journal of Financial Economics 18, no. 1 (1987): 111-26. [BACK]

17. My approach in this chapter both overlaps and differs from that of Amitai Etzioni in The Moral Dimension: Toward a New Economics (New York: Free Press, 1988), which appeared just as this book was going to press. Although our critiques of neoclassical economic assumptions are similar, Etzioni views rationality as artificial and nonrationality as natural, whereas I tend to see the matter the other way around (see Chapter 8). In addition, he posits a dichotomy between self-interested or pleasurable motivations and moral ones, while I tend to view advocates of rational egoism as engaged in a discussion about morality, if of a particular kind. Finally, Etzioni's approach to moral obligation is more deontological than mine, as will become clear in the chapters that follow. [BACK]

18. See Marvin B. Sussman, Judith N. Cates, and David T. Smith, The Family and Inheritance (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1970); and John A. Brittain, Inheritance and the Inequality of Material Wealth (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1978). On discrimination against daughters, see Carole Shammas, Marylynn Salmon, and Michael Dahlin, Inheritance in America from Colonial Times to the Present (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1987), 204. [BACK]

19. B. D. Bernheim, A. Shleifer, and L. H. Summers, "The Strategic Bequest Motive," Journal of Political Economy 93 (December 1985): 1071. [BACK]

20. Timothy H. Hannan, "Bank Robberies and Bank Security Precautions," Journal of Legal Studies 11 (January 1982): 83-92. [BACK]

21. Richard Titmuss, The Gift Relationship: From Human Blood to Social Policy (London: Allen and Unwin, 1970); a recent effort to reinterpret blood donation from an economic perspective is Robert Sugden, Who Cares? An Economic and Ethical Analysis of Private Charity and the Welfare State (London: Institute for Economic Affairs, 1983). For a far more balanced, indeed charitable, view, see Kenneth J. continue

Arrow, "Gifts and Exchanges," in Altruism, Morality, and Economic Theory, ed. Edmund S. Phelps (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1975), 13-28. [BACK]

22. On dueling, W. F. Schwartz, K. Baxter, and D. Ryan, "The Duel: Can These Gentlemen Be Acting Efficiently?" Journal of Legal Studies 13 (June 1984): 321-55; on symbols and clan names, J. L. Carr and J. T. Landu, "The Economics of Symbols, Clan Names, and Religion," Journal of Legal Studies 12 (January 1983): 135-56; on blackmail, Richard A. Epstein, "Blackmail, Inc.," University of Chicago Law Review 50 (Spring 1983): 553-66; on plea bargaining, Frank H. Easterbrook, "Criminal Procedure and the Market System,'' Journal of Legal Studies 12 (June 1983): 289-332; on quackery, A.W.B. Simpson, "Quackery and Contract Law: The Case of the Carbolic Smoke Ball," Journal of Legal Studies 14 (June 1985): 345-89; on photocopying, William R. Johnson, "The Economics of Copying," Journal of Political Economy 93 (February 1985): 158-74; on academic life, George J. Stigler, The Intellectual and the Market Place (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1963); on Eichmann, Albert Breton and Ronald Wintrobe, "The Bureaucracy of Murder Revisited," Journal of Political Economy 94 (October 1986): 905-26. [BACK]

23. Bruce Bueno de Mesquita, "The Costs of War: A Rational Expectations Approach," American Political Science Review 77 (June 1983): 347-57. [BACK]

24. Becker, Economic Approach, 14. Becker claims that he is not trying to "downgrade" the other social sciences and is not even arguing for the superiority of economics. But he then proceeds to cite as evidence of the contribution made by other social sciences only those committed to the assumption of stable preferences, most especially, in his view, sociobiology. Recently Becker accepted an appointment in the sociology department at the University of Chicago to complement his appointment in economics. [BACK]

25. Jack Hirshleifer, "The Expanding Domain of Economics," American Economic Review 75 (December 1985): 53-68. [BACK]

26. Reuven Brenner, "Economics--An Imperialist Science?" Journal of Legal Studies 9 (January 1980): 179-88. A certain modesty in predictive claims might be entertained by the economics profession. One study compared the predictions made by the economists concerning GNP, inflation, and the balance of trade against so-called naive methods, such as estimating the future based on a linear extrapolation from the immediate past. The naive methods performed better. See D. J. Smyth and J.C.K. Ash, "Forecasting Gross National Product, the Rate of Inflation, and the Balance of Trade: The OECD Performance," The Economic Journal 85 (June 1975): 361-64. See also the discussion in Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory (South Bend, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981), 89. [BACK]

27. Donald N. McCloskey, The Rhetoric of Economics (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), 76, 82. [BACK]

28. See Milton Friedman, "The Methodology of Positive Economics," in Essays in Positive Economics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953), 3-46. break [BACK]

29. Gordon Tullock, "Economic Imperialism," in The Theory of Public Choice, ed. James M. Buchanan and Robert D. Tollison (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972), 324. [BACK]

30. Michael S. McPherson, "Want Formation, Morality, and Some 'Interpretative' Aspects of Economic Inquiry," in Social Science as Moral Inquiry, ed. Norma Haan et al. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983), 96-124. [BACK]

31. George J. Stigler and Gary S. Becker, "De Gustibus Non Disputandum," American Economic Review 67 (March 1977): 76-90. [BACK]

32. For a critique of Chicago school theory along similar lines, and moreover one that shows the linkages between behavioralism in psychology, sociobiology, and this version of economic theory, see Barry Schwartz, The Battle for Human Nature: Science, Morality, and Modern Life (New York: W.W. Norton, 1986). [BACK]

33. For a discussion of the major ethical and moral issues raised by economic theories of the market, see Allen Buchanan, Ethics, Efficiency, and the Market (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985). [BACK]

34. Becker, Economic Approach, 14. [BACK]

35. Richard A. Posner, The Economics of Justice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), 2. [BACK]

36. Elizabeth M. Landes and Richard A. Posner, "The Economics of the Baby Shortage," Journal of Legal Studies 7 (June 1978): 344-45. [BACK]

37. Becker, Economic Approach, 8, 5, 14. [BACK]

38. See, for example, Bernard Williams, "A Critique of Utilitarianism," in Utilitarianism--For and Against, ed. J.J.C. Smart and Bernard Williams (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973), 77-150. [BACK]

39. Posner, Economics of Justice, 66. [BACK]

40. Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality (New York: Basic Books, 1983). [BACK]

41. Posner, Economics of Justice, 62. [BACK]

42. Walzer, Spheres of Justice, 281-321. [BACK]

43. Ibid., 119-20. [BACK]

44. An interesting effort to argue that marketplace theories of rational choice are coercive may be found in Robin West, "Authority, Autonomy, and Choice: The Role of Consent in the Moral and Political Visions of Franz Kafka and Richard Posner," Harvard Law Review 99 (December 1985): 384-428. I also found helpful Larry M. Preston, "Freedom, Markets, and Voluntary Exchange," American Political Science Review 78 (December 1984): 959-70. [BACK]

45. Charles Lindblom, "The Market as Prison," Journal of Politics 44 (May 1982): 324-36. [BACK]

46. The novelist is Richard Powers, Prisoner's Dilemma (New York: William Morrow, 1988). [BACK]

47. Robert Axelrod, The Evolution of Cooperation (New York: Basic Books, 1984). [BACK]

48. Tournaments are of special interest to the Chicago school; see, for example, continue

Jerry R. Green and Nancy L. Stokey, "A Comparison of Tournaments and Contracts," Journal of Political Economy 91 (June 1983): 349-64. [BACK]

49. Axelrod, Evolution of Cooperation, 193. Tullock evidently did not enter the second round. [BACK]

50. For introductions to the economics of time, see Gordon C. Winston, The Timing of Economic Activities (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982); and Clifford H. Sharp, The Economics of Time (Oxford: Martin Robertson, 1981). [BACK]

51. See Robert Frank, Choosing the Right Pond: Human Behavior and the Quest for Status (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 42-55, for an explication of this point. [BACK]

52. Murray Malbin, Night as Frontier: Colonizing the World After Dark (New York: Free Press, 1987), 105. [BACK]

53. Eviatar Zerubavel, The Seven-Day Circle: The History and Meaning of the Week (New York: Free Press, 1985), 88, 109. [BACK]

54. See Gary Becker, "A Theory of the Allocation of Time," Economic Journal 75 (September 1965): 493-517. [BACK]

55. Axelrod, Evolution of Cooperation, 126-32. [BACK]

56. Leon Mann, "Queue Culture: The Waiting Line as a Social System," American Journal of Sociology 75 (November 1969): 341. [BACK]

57. Niklas Luhmann, Trust and Power (New York: John Wiley, 1979), 20. [BACK]

58. Mann, "Queue Culture," 342. For another sociological study in the same vein, one that (in my opinion) concedes too much importance to economic theories, see Barry Schwartz, Queuing and Waiting: Studies in the Social Organization of Access and Delay (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975). [BACK]

59. Charles W. Smith, Auctions: The Social Construction of Value (New York: Free Press, 1989). [BACK]

60. A standard work in the economics of space is R. W. Vickerman, Spatial Economic Behavior (London: Macmillan, 1970). [BACK]

61. Jon P. Nelson, "Residential Choice, Hedonic Prices, and the Demand for Urban Air Quality," Journal of Urban Economics 5 (July 1978): 357-69; and Douglas E. Hough and Charles G. Kratz, "Can 'Good' Architecture Meet the Market Test?" Journal of Urban Economics 14 (July 1983): 40-54. [BACK]

62. Larry A. Sjaastad, "The Costs and Returns of Human Migration," Journal of Political Economy 70 (October 1962 supplement): 80. [BACK]

63. Charles M. Tiebout, "A Pure Theory of Local Expenditures," Journal of Political Economy 64 (October 1956): 416-24. [BACK]

64. Donald Lowe, History of Bourgeois Perception (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), 55-60. [BACK]

65. Kwang-kuo Hwang, "Face and Favor: The Chinese Power Game," American Journal of Sociology 92 (January 1987): 944-74, esp. 963. [BACK]

66. Posner, Economics of Justice, 146-227. break [BACK]

67. Harold Garfinkel, Studies in Ethnomethodology (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: prentice-Hall, 1967). [BACK]

68. Jon Elster, Ulysses and the Sirens: Studies in Rationality and Irrationality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979). [BACK]

69. Charles Taylor, Hegel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), 561, 563. [BACK]

70. Steffan B. Linder, The Harried Leisure Class (New York: Columbia University Press, 1979), and Tibor Scitovsky, The Joyless Economy: An Inquiry into Human Satisfaction and Consumer Dissatisfaction (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), explore this theme. [BACK]

71. E. M. Forster, Howard's End (London: Penguin Books, 1971), 316. [BACK]

1. I owe to Adam Przeworski and Michael Wallerstein the notion that the bourgeoisie never completed its first revolution. See "Democratic Capitalism at the Crossroads," democracy 2 (July 1982): 52-68. [BACK]

2. An interesting study of the anticapitalist inclinations of many British capitalists may be found in Martin J. Weiner, English Culture and the Decline of the Industrial Spirit, 1850-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981). [BACK]

3. Joan W. Scott and Louise A. Tilly, "Women's Work and the Family in Nineteenth Century Europe," Comparative Studies in Society and History 17 (January 1975): 36-64. [BACK]

4. Ibid., 50, 59. [BACK]

5. Louise A. Tilly and Joan W. Scott, Women, Work, and Family (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1978), 214. [BACK]

6. See Diana Pearce, "The Feminization of Poverty: Women, Work, and Welfare," Urban and Social Change Review 11 (Winter-Summer 1978): 28-36; and Barbara Ehrenreich and Frances Fox Piven, "The Feminization of Poverty: When the Family Wage System Breaks Down," Dissent 31 (Spring 1984): 162-70. [BACK]

7. Paul Blumberg, Inequality in an Age of Decline (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 90, 92. [BACK]

8. Kathleen Gerson, Hard Choices: How Women Decide About Work, Career, and Motherhood (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985), 70-74, 77-80. [BACK]

9. For a study of how women decide among different contraceptive (and non-contraceptive) options, see Kristin Luker, Taking Chances: Abortion and the Decision Not to Contracept (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1975). In the 1980s, however, worries about the pill, corporate efforts to remove IUDs from the market, and changing attitudes toward abortion have made completely free choice in birth control a thing of the past for many women. break [BACK]

10. Rosanna Hertz, More Equal Than Others: Women and Men in Dual-Career Marriages (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986), 118. On delayed childbearing in demographic terms, see Roland R. Rindfuss, S. Philip Morgan, and Gary Swicegood, First Births in America: Changes in the Timing of Parenthood (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988), 65-74. [BACK]

11. Gerson, Hard Choices, 167-68. [BACK]

12. Linda J. Waite and Ross M. Stolzenberg, "Intended Childbearing and Labor Force Participation of Young Women," American Sociological Review 41 (April 1976): 235-52; and James C. Cramer, "Fertility and Female Employment: Problems of Causal Direction," American Sociological Review 45 (April 1980): 167-90. [BACK]

13. David M. Schneider and Raymond T. Smith, Class Differences and Sex Roles in American Kinship and Family Structure (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1973), 42. [BACK]

14. Shirley S. Angrist, Judith R. Lave, and Richard Mickelsen, "How Working Mothers Manage: Socioeconomic Differences in Work, Childcare, and Household Tasks," Social Science Quarterly 56 (March 1976): 631-37. [BACK]

15. Andrew J. Cherlin and Frank R. Furstenberg, Jr., The New American Grandparent: A Place in the Family, a Life Apart (New York: Basic Books, 1986), 127-31. [BACK]

16. Schneider and Smith, Class Differences, 42. [BACK]

17. Gerson, Hard Choices, 185. [BACK]

18. Hertz, More Equal Than Others, 151. [BACK]

19. Andrew J. Cherlin, Marriage, Divorce, Remarriage (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), 34. [BACK]

20. Glen H. Elder, Jr., Children of the Great Depression: Social Change in the Life Experience (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974). [BACK]

21. Glen H. Elder, Jr., and Richard C. Rockwell, "Economic Depression and Postwar Opportunity in Men's Lives," in Research on Community Mental Health, ed. R. A. Simmons (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1979), 1:249-303. [BACK]

22. Glen H. Elder, Jr., "Social History and the Life Experience," in Present and Past in Middle Life, ed. Dorothy H. Eichorn et al. (New York: Academic Press, 1981), 3-31. [BACK]

23. Jeffrey K. Liker and Glen H. Elder, Jr., "Economic Hardship and Marital Relations in the 1930s," American Sociological Review 48 (June 1983): 343-59. [BACK]

24. Carol B. Stack, All Our Kin: Strategies for Survival in a Black Community (New York: Harper and Row, 1974). [BACK]

25. Philip Blumstein and Pepper Schwartz, American Couples: Money, Work, Sex (New York: William Morrow, 1983), 189. [BACK]

26. Lenore J. Weitzman, The Divorce Revolution: The Unexpected Social and Economic Consequences for Women and Children in America (New York: Free Press, 1985), x, 370. [BACK]

27. Ibid., 374. [BACK]

28. Cherlin, Marriage, Divorce, 74. break [BACK]

29. Judith S. Wallerstein and Joan Berlin Kelly, Surviving the Breakup: How Children and Parents Cope with Divorce (New York: Basic Books, 1980), 206-34. [BACK]

30. Cherlin, Marriage, Divorce, 79. [BACK]

31. Frank F. Furstenberg et al., "The Life Course of Children of Divorce," American Sociological Review 48 (October 1983): 667. [BACK]

32. Arthur Kornhaber, "Grandparenthood and the 'New Social Contract,'" in Grandparenthood, ed. Vern L. Bengston and Joan F. Robertson (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1985), 159. [BACK]

33. Lillian Troll and Vern Bengston, "Generations and the Family," in Contemporary Theories of the Family, ed. Wesley R. Burr et al. (New York: Free Press, 1979), 1:127-61; Amy Horowitz, "Sons and Daughters as Caregivers to Older Parents," The Gerontologist 25 (December 1985): 612-17; and Bertram J. Cohler and Henry V. Grunebaum, Mothers, Grandmothers, Daughters (New York: John Wiley, 1981). [BACK]

34. Cherlin and Furstenberg, New American Grandparent, 51. [BACK]

35. Ibid., 57, 41, 96, 167, 176, 206. [BACK]

36. All these factors may help explain why the gap in happiness between married and unmarried couples has been decreasing. See Norval D. Glenn and Charles N. Weaver, "The Changing Relationship of Marital Status to Reported Happiness," Journal of Marriage and the Family 50 (May 1988): 817-24. [BACK]

37. Included here is, most prominently, Gary Becker; see A Treatise on the Family (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981). [BACK]

38. William J. Goode, perhaps the leading theorist of the family in American sociology, "welcomes" what he calls the Chicago school "invasion" of sociology, yet also warns sociologists to "turn away from the deficiencies in that approach and instead build into our basic schema of action itself the variables and factors that economics leaves out." For his welcome, see "Comment: The Economics of Nonmonetary Variables," in The Economics of the Family, ed. Theodore W. Schultz (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974), 346; for his warning, see "Individual Choice and the Social Order,'' in The Social Fabric: Dimensions and Issues, ed. James F. Short (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1986), 58. [BACK]

39. Joseph Veroff, Elizabeth Douvan, and Richard A. Kulka, The Inner American: A Self-portrait from 1957 to 1976 (New York: Basic Books, 1981), 140-41. [BACK]

40. Kai Erikson, Everything in Its Path: Destruction of Community in the Buffalo Creek Flood (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1976), 13. [BACK]

41. Actually, given the inclination of most sociologists to want to counter conventional wisdom, there is a strain in the field that emphasizes how much small-town life was affected by the Gesellschaft features of modern life. See Arthur Vidich and Joseph Bensman, Small Town in Mass Society: Class, Power, and Religion in a Rural Community (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1968). [BACK]

42. William Kornblum, Blue Collar Community (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974); Gerald D. Suttles, The Social Order of the Slum: Ethnicity and Territory in the Inner City (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968); and Her- soft

bert Gans, The Urban Villagers: Group and Class in the Life of Italian-Americans (New York: Free Press, 1962). [BACK]

43. On the claim that the advance of modernity need not lead to the decline of community, see Thomas Bender, Community and Social Change in America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1982); Claude Fischer, To Dwell Among Friends: Personal Networks in Town and City (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); and the literature cited by both. Other recent treatments include Barry Wellman, "The Community Question: The Intimate Networks of East Yorkers," American Journal of Sociology 84 (March 1979): 1201-31, which deals with Toronto; and Barrett A. Lee et al., "Testing the Decline of Community Thesis," American Journal of Sociology 89 (March 1984): 1161-88. [BACK]

44. Bender, Community and Social Change, 7, 113-14. [BACK]

45. Peter M. Wolf, Land in America: Its Value, Use, and Control (New York: Pantheon Books, 1981), 19. [BACK]

46. Henry J. Aaron, Shelter and Subsidies: Who Benefits from Federal Housing Projects? (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1972). [BACK]

47. Gwendolyn Wright, Building the Dream: A Social History of Housing in America (New York: Pantheon Books, 1981), 244. [BACK]

48. Quoted in Matthew Edel, Elliott D. Sclar, and Daniel Luria, Shaky Palaces: Homeownership and Social Mobility in Boston's Suburbanization (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984), 345. [BACK]

49. David Harvey, "The Political Economy of Urbanization in Advanced Capitalism," in The Social Economy of Cities, ed. Gary Gappbert and Harold M. Rose (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1975), 153. [BACK]

50. Fischer, To Dwell Among Friends, 216. [BACK]

51. Mark S. Granovetter, "The Strength of Weak Ties," American Journal of Sociology 78 (May 1973): 1378. [BACK]

52. Fischer, To Dwell Among Friends, 88. [BACK]

53. Freddie Mac Reports (May 1984): 6. [BACK]

54. Ibid. (June 1987): 4. [BACK]

55. Data collected from Freddie Mac Reports, all issues 1984-86; Marshall Dennis, Residential Mortgage Lending (Reston, Va.: Reston Publishing Company, 1985); and "Adjustable Rate Financing in Mortgage and Consumer Credit Markets," Federal Reserve Bulletin 71 (November 1985): 823-35. It has been reported that 70 percent of new home loans in early 1988 were adjustable; see Francine Schwadel and Robert Johnson, "More Consumers Find Variable-Rate Loans a Burden as Rates Rise," Wall Street Journal, 3 June 1988, 1. [BACK]

56. Freddie Mac Reports (November 1985): 2. [BACK]

57. Ibid. (June 1987): 6. [BACK]

58. Ibid. (December 1984): 6. [BACK]

59. Harvey Molotch and John R. Logan, "Urban Dependencies: New Forms of Use and Exchange in U.S. Cities," Urban Affairs Quarterly 21 (December 1985): continue

143-69 . See also Logan and Molotch, Urban Futures: The Political Economy of Place (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1987). [BACK]

60. For comments by San Franciscans worried about Manhattanization, see David M. Hummon, "Urban Views: Popular Perspectives on City Life," Urban Life 15 (April 1986): 23. [BACK]

61. An ethnographic account of the implications of the economic downturn for Elizabeth is contained in Katherine S. Newman, "Turning Your Back on Tradition: Symbolic Analysis and Moral Critique in a Plant Shutdown," Urban Anthropology 14 (Spring-Summer-Fall 1985): 109-50, esp. p. 141. Similar comments concerning the area around Elizabeth can be found in David Halle, America's Working Man: Work, Home, and Politics Among Blue-Collar Property Owners (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984). [BACK]

62. William R. Freudenberg, "Boomtown's Youth: The Differential Impacts of Rapid Community Growth on Adolescents and Adults," American Sociological Review 49 (October 1984): 697-705. [BACK]

63. Richard S. Krannich, Thomas Greider, and Ronald L. Little, "Rapid Growth and Fear of Crime," Rural Sociology 50 (Summer 1985): 193-209. [BACK]

64. Alan C. Acock and Forrest A. Deseran, "Off-Farm Employment by Women and Marital Instability," Rural Sociology 51 (Fall 1986): 314-27. [BACK]

65. J. Lynn England and Stan L. Albrecht, "Boomtowns and Social Disruption," Rural Sociology 49 (Summer 1984): 230-46. [BACK]

66. P. D. Rosenblatt and L. O. Keller, "Economic Vulnerability and Economic Stress in Farm Couples," Family Relations 32 (October 1983): 567-73. [BACK]

67. See Kenneth P. Wilkinson, "Rurality and Patterns of Social Disruption," Rural Sociology 49 (Spring 1984): 23-36; and Steven Stack, "The Effects of Marital Dissolution on Suicide," Journal of Marriage and the Family 42 (February 1980): 83-91. [BACK]

68. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Indicators of the Farm Sector: State Financial Summary, 1985 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1987), 112; and American Banker's Association data, cited in U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Finance: Situation and Outlook Report (March 1986): 20 and (March 1987): 26. [BACK]

69. Kenneth P. Wilkinson, "In Search of Community in the Changing Countryside," Rural Sociology 51 (Spring 1986): 1-17. See also Wilkinson, "Changing Rural Communities," In Handbook of Community Mental Health, ed. Peter A. Keller and J. Dennis Murray (New York: Human Sciences Press, 1982), 20-28. [BACK]

70. Gary P. Green, "Credit and Agriculture: Some Consequences of the Centralization of the Banking system," Rural Sociology 49 (Winter 1984): 568-79. [BACK]

71. Andrew H. Malcolm, Final Harvest: An American Tragedy (New York: Times Books, 1986), 28. [BACK]

72. For elaborations on these points, see James S. Duncan, ed., Housing and Identity: Cross-cultural Perspectives (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1982). break [BACK]

73. Constance Perin, Everything in Its Place: Social Order and Land Use in America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977), 3. [BACK]

74. Herbert J. Gans, The Levittowners: Ways of Life and Politics in a New Suburban Community (New York: Vintage Books, 1967), 179. [BACK]

75. Mark Baldassare, Trouble in Paradise: The Suburban Transformation in America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), 101-68. [BACK]

76. See Dirk Johnson, "Suburban Fire and Rescue Services Have Worrisome Volunteer Shortage," New York Times, 19 May 1986, pt. 2, p. 1. [BACK]

77. Kenneth B. Perkins, "Volunteer Firefighters in the United States" (Unpublished report to the National Volunteer Fire Council, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Longwood College, Farmville, Virginia, 13 August 1987). [BACK]

78. Ira Katznelson and Margaret Weir, Schooling for All: Class, Race, and the Decline of the Democratic Ideal (New York: Basic Books, 1985), 24. [BACK]

79. The leading historian of this effort is Michael Katz, from The Irony of Early School Reform: Educational Innovation in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Massachusetts (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968) to Reconstructing American Education (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987). [BACK]

80. The major critique of the revisions may be found in Diana Ravitch, The Revisionists Revised: A Critique of the Radical Attack on the Schools (New York: Basic Books, 1978). I also found helpful in correcting an overemphasis on economic explanations of educational institutions Richard Rubinson, "Class Formation, Politics, and Institutions: Schooling in the United States," American Journal of Sociology 92 (November 1986): 519-48. [BACK]

81. David Tyack and Elizabeth Hansot, Managers of Virtue: Public School Leadership in America, 1820-1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1982), 28-62. [BACK]

82. John W. Meyer et al., "Public Education as Nation Building in America," American Journal of Sociology 85 (November 1979): 601. [BACK]

83. James S. Coleman, Thomas Hoffer, and Sally Kilgore, High School Achievement: Public, Private, and Catholic High Schools Compared (New York: Basic Books, 1982). For updated data, see Coleman and Hoffer, Public and Private High Schools: The Impact of Communities (New York: Basic Books, 1987). [BACK]

84. The critical literature on the Coleman study is in fact voluminous, and not all or even a substantial part of it can be cited here. For a representative sample of the debate, see Karl L. Alexander and Aaron M. Pallas, "Private Schools and Public Policy," Sociology of Education 56 (October 1983): 170-82; and Sally Kilgore, "Schooling Effects: Reply to Alexander and Pallas," Sociology of Education 57 (January 1984): 59-61. [BACK]

85. Among the most exclusive private schools--the boarding schools that train the predominantly Protestant elite--parents purchase private education, often at high cost; paradoxically, though, the schools teach not individualistic values associated with the market, but instead rituals, bonding, loyalty, and other primarily "nonrational" values. See Peter W. Cookson, Jr., and Caroline Hodges Persell, Pre- soft

paring for Power: America's Elite Boarding School (New York: Basic Books, 1985), 22-26, 106. [BACK]

86. Barbara Falsey and Barbara Heyns, "The College Channel," Sociology of Education 57 (April 1984): 111-22. [BACK]

87. Laura Hersh Salganik and Nancy Karweit, "Voluntarism and Governance in Education," Sociology of Education 55 (April-July 1982): 152-61. [BACK]

88. Bruce S. Cooper, "The Changing Universe of U.S. Private Schools" (Stanford University, Institute for Research on Educational Finance and Governance, November 1985, mimeo), 30, 34. [BACK]

89. See Alan Peshkin, God's Choice: The Total World of a Fundamentalist Christian School (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986). [BACK]

90. Thomas James and Henry M. Levin, eds., Public Dollars for Private Schools: The Case of Tuition Tax Credits (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1983). See also Henry M. Levin, "Education as a Public and Private Good," Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 6 (Summer 1987): 628-41; and Michael Krashinsky, "Why Educational Vouchers May Be Bad Economics," Teachers College Record 88 (Winter 1986): 139-51. [BACK]

91. Katznelson and Weir, Schooling for All, 216. [BACK]

92. Arthur G. Powell, Eleanor Farrar, and David K. Cohen, The Shopping Mall High School (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1985), 77. [BACK]

93. Noah Lewin-Epstein, Youth Employment During High School (Washington: National Center for Education Statistics, 1981), cited in Ellen Greenberger and Laurence Steinberg, When Teenagers Work: The Psychological and Social Costs of Adolescent Employment (New York: Basic Books, 1986), 16. [BACK]

94. Before children became "priceless" in America, they were often expected to turn over any wages they made in a sealed envelope to their parents; see Viviana Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child: The Changing Social Value of Children (New York: Basic Books, 1985), 101. [BACK]

95. Greenberger and Steinberg, When Teenagers Work, 10-46. [BACK]

96. Powell, Farrar, and Cohen, Shopping Mall High School, 77. [BACK]

97. Greenberger and Steinberg, When Teenagers Work, 51. [BACK]

98. Powell, Farrar, and Cohen, Shopping Mall Eigh School, 39, 41. [BACK]

99. Ibid., 56, 93. [BACK]

100. Robert Hampel, The Last Little Citadel: American High Schools Since 1940 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1986), 2. [BACK]

101. In general, see Robert W. Poole, Jr., and Philip E. Fixler, Jr., "Privatization of Public-Sector Services in Practice," Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 6 (Summer 1987): 612-25; and Stephen H. Hanke, ed., Prospects for Privatization (New York: Academy of Political Science, 1987). On prisons, see Joan Mullen, "Corrections and the Private Sector," Research in Brief (National Institute of Justice) (March 1985): 4. Biotherapeutics, Inc., which opened in 1985, is the only private for-profit cancer research business in the United States; see Robin Marantz Hening, continue

"In Business to Treat Cancer," New York Times Magazine, 23 November 1986, 68-70, 78-86. [BACK]

102. Stuart M. Butler, Privatizing Public Spending: A Strategy to Eliminate the Deficit (New York: Universe Books, 1985), 136-40. [BACK]

103. Poole and Fixler, "Privatization," 620-21. Sweden has already begun to implement such a technology; see International Herald Tribune, 17 March 1988, 2. [BACK]

104. See, e.g., Isabel Wilkerson, "Schools of Social Work Swamped by Applicants," New York Times, 9 November 1987, A18. [BACK]

105. For evidence on this point, see Norval D. Glenn, "Social Trends in the United States: Evidence from Sample Surveys," Public Opinion Quarterly (Winter 1987), S109-S126. [BACK]

106. Veroff, Douvan, and Kulka, Inner American, 118. [BACK]

1. Thomas Schelling, Micromotives and Macrobehavior (New York: W. W. Norton, 1978). [BACK]

2. Marian Wright Edelman, Families in Peril: An Agenda for Social Change (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987), 27. A study published by the Center on Budget and Public Priorities concluded that the number of poor families with children grew 35 percent between 1979 and 1987; see the New York Times, 8 September 1987, B7. [BACK]

3. These figures come from Alvin L. Schorr, Common Decency: Domestic Policies After Reagan (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1986), 79. [BACK]

4. W. Norton Grubb and Marvin Lazerson, Broken Promises: How Americans Fail Their Children (New York: Basic Books, 1982), 52. [BACK]

5. See George Masnick and Mary Jo Bane, The Nation's Families: 1960-1990 (Boston: Auburn House, 1980), 47-50; and Sar A. Levitan, Richard S. Belous, and Frank Gallo, What's Happening to the American Family? Tensions, Hopes, Realities, rev. ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988), 107-24. A clear presentation of 1980 census figures is contained in James A. Sweet and Larry L. Bumpers, American Families and Households (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1987). [BACK]

6. U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee on Children, Youth, and Families, Children, Youth, and Families, 1983; cited in Eric R. Kingson, Barbara A. Hirshorn, and John M. Cormann, Ties That Bind: The Interdependence of Generations (Washington, D.C.: Seven Locks Press, 1986), 119. See also Harrell R. Rodgers, Jr., Poor Women, Poor Families: The Economic Plight of America's Femaleheaded Households (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1986). [BACK]

7. Martha S. Hill, "Trends in the Economic Situation of U.S. Families and Children: 1970-1980," in American Families and the Economy, ed. Richard R. Nelson and Felicity Skidmore (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1983), 48. break [BACK]

8. Phyllis Moen, Edward L. Kain, and Glen H. Elder, Jr., "Economic Conditions and Family Life," in Nelson and Skidmore, American Families, 236. [BACK]

9. Ibid., 244. [BACK]

10. The material cited in this paragraph comes from Janet S. Hansen, "Student Loans: Are They Overburdening a Generation?" (Washington, D.C.: Joint Economic Committee, U.S. Congress, December 1986); quotes pp. 21, 37. [BACK]

11. Judith Gussler and L. Eugene Arnold, "Feeding Patterns and the Changing Family," in Parents, Children, and Change, ed. L. Eugene Arnold (Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath, 1985), 117. [BACK]

12. National Commission on Youth, The Transition of Youth to Adulthood (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1980), 186; cited in Jerold M. Starr, "American Youth in the 1980s," Youth and Society 17 (June 1986): 342. [BACK]

13. Starr, "American Youth," 340. A further study sponsored by the Center for Disease Control reported that between 1970 and 1980 the suicide rate among men aged between fifteen and twenty-four increased from 13.5 per 100,000 population to 20.2; the increase in female suicide was negligible. See "Youth Suicide is Rising," New York Times, 22 February 1987, pt. 1, p. 28. [BACK]

14. Emile Durkheim, Suicide (New York: Free Press, 1966), 215. [BACK]

15. Starr, "American Youth." [BACK]

16. T. R. Forstenzer, "Tomorrow in North America: Youth Between the American Dream and Reality," in Youth in the 1980s (New York: UNESCO Press, 1981), 65-86. On political knowledge in general, see W. Russell Neuman, The Paradox of Mass Politics: Knowledge and Opinion in the American Electorate (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986), 14-25. [BACK]

17. Raymond A. Eve and Francis B. Harrold, "Creationism, Cult Archaeology, and Other Pseudoscientific Beliefs," Youth and Society 17 (June 1986): 396-421. [BACK]

18. One study, however, did not find that 1982 students were more pessimistic toward the future; see Guy J. Manaster, Donald L. Greer, and Douglas A. Kleiber, "Youth's Outlook on the Future III," Youth and Society 17 (September 1985): 97-112. [BACK]

19. Angela A. Aidala and Cathy Stein Greenblatt, "Changes in Moral Judgement Among Student Populations, 1929-83," Youth and Society 17 (March 1986): 221-35. [BACK]

20. American Council on Education, The American Freshman: National Norms for Fall 1987 (Los Angeles: Higher Education Research Institute, UCLA, 1988). College officials, however, have begun to talk of a rebirth of voluntarism and idealistic spirit on campus at the end of the 1980s; see the New York Times, 3 December 1986, 24. [BACK]

21. Pamela Doty, "Family Care of the Elderly: The Role of Public Policy," Milbank Quarterly 64, no. 1 (1986): 34-75. [BACK]

22. Andrew Cherlin and Frank F. Furstenberg, The New American Grandparent: A Place in the Family, a Life Apart (New York: Basic Books, 1986), 110. The continue

relationship between proximity and care giving is discussed in Judith A. Hays, "Aging and Family Resources: Availability and Proximity of Kin," The Gerontologist 24 (April 1984): 149-53. [BACK]

23. Sarah H. Matthews and Jetse Sprey, "The Impact of Divorce on Grandparenthood," The Gerontologist 24 (February 1984): 41-47. See also Cherlin and Furstenberg, New American Grandparent, 136-64. [BACK]

24. William Rakowski and Noreen M. Clark, "Future Outlook, Caregiving, and Care-receiving in the Family Context," The Gerontologist 25 (December 1985): 618-23. [BACK]

25. For evidence that reciprocity matters to relations between generations, see Amy Horwitz and Lois W. Shindelman, "Reciprocity and Affection: Past Influences on Current Caregiving," Journal of Gerontological Social Work 5 (Spring 1983): 5-20; and Peggy Hawley and John D. Chamley, "Older Person's Perceptions of the Quality of Their Human Support Systems," Aging and Society 6 (September 1986): 295-312. [BACK]

26. Doty, "Family Care of the Elderly," 39. [BACK]

27. Henry J. Pratt, The Gray Lobby (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976). [BACK]

28. Some of the pitfalls of the interest-group strategy are discussed in Fernando Torres-Gil and Jon Pynoos, "Long-Term Care Policy and Interest Group Struggles," The Gerontologist 26 (October 1986): 488-95. [BACK]

29. Phillip Longman, Born to Pay: The New Politics of Aging in America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1987), 27-32. [BACK]

30. Daniel Yankelovich, New Rules: Searching for Self-fulfillment in a World Turned Upside Down (New York: Random House, 1981), 104; cited in Daniel Callahan, Setting Limits: Medical Goals in an Aging Society (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987), 86. [BACK]

31. Callahan, Setting Limits, 30. [BACK]

32. Annette Baier, "The Rights of Past and Future Generations," in Responsibilities to Future Generations: Environmental Ethics, ed. Ernest Partridge (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 1981), 177. [BACK]

33. "Pressure on time, like pressure on geographic or social space, adds to the consumption activities that have to be undertaken as means to other forms of consumption" (Fred Hirsch, The Social Limits to Growth [Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978], 75). [BACK]

34. Recognition of the importance of the third sector has been stimulated by a series of studies out of Yale University concerning "nonprofit" activities. See, e.g., Paul J. DiMaggio, ed., Non-Profit Enterprise in the Arts: Studies in Mission and Constraint (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); and Walter W. Powell, ed., The Non-Profit Sector: A Research Handbook (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1987). [BACK]

35. Commission on Private Philanthropy and Public Needs, Giving in America: Toward a Stronger Voluntary Sector (Washington, D.C.: Filer Commission, 1975), 11; hereafter cited as Filer Commission, Giving . break [BACK]

36. There are to my knowledge only a few serious efforts to discuss the political theory of the third sector and to contrast it to the free market liberalism of economics: Franklin I. Gamwell, Beyond Preference: Liberal Theories of Independent Associations (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984); and Susan A. Ostrander, Stuart Longton, and Jon Van Til, eds., Shifting the Debate: Public/Private Sector Relations in the Modern Welfare State (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1987). [BACK]

37. Virginia Ann Hodgkinson and Murray A. Weitzman, Dimensions of the Independent Sector (Washington, D.C.: Independent Sector, 1986). [BACK]

38. Waldemar Nielsen, The Endangered Sector (New York: Columbia University Press, 1979), 10; Ralph L. Nelson, "Private Giving in the American Economy," Filer Commission Research Papers (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Treasury Department, 1977), 115-55; and Charles T. Clotfelter, Federal Tax Policy and Charitable Giving (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), 17-18. [BACK]

39. On the antipathy toward government as a source of altruistic inclinations in the Reagan years, see Renee A. Berger, "Private-Sector Initiatives in the Reagan Era: New Actors Rework an Old Theme," in The Reagan Presidency and the Governing of America, ed. Lester M. Salamon and Michael S. Lund (Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute, 1985), 181-211. [BACK]

40. Wendy Kaminer, Women Volunteering: The Pleasure, Pain, and Politics of Unpaid Work from 1830 to the Present (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1984), 15-16; and Barry Kosmin, "The Political Economy of Gender in Jewish Federations" (Paper presented at the conference "Women and Philanthropy," CUNY Graduate Center, June 1987). [BACK]

41. Alan Pifer, Philanthropy in an Age of Transition: The Essays of Alan Pifer (New York: The Foundation Center, 1984), 231. [BACK]

42. Filer Commission, Giving, 56-57. [BACK]

43. Donald I. Warren and Rachelle B. Warren, "U.S. National Patterns of Problem Coping Networks," Journal of Voluntary Action Research 14 (April-September 1985): 31-53. [BACK]

44. Hodgkinson and Weitzman, Dimensions of the Independent Sector, 74. [BACK]

45. See the interview with Virginia Hodgkinson reported in Fund Raising Management 17 (August 1986): 68. [BACK]

46. Patricia Klobus Edwards and Ann DeWitt Watts, "Volunteerism in Human Service Organizations: Trends and Prospects," Journal of Applied Social Sciences 7 (Spring-Summer 1983): 225-45. See also Arlene Kaplan Daniels, Invisible Careers: Women Civic Leaders From the Volunteer World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988). [BACK]

47. Vicki R. Schram and Marilyn M. Dunsing, "Influences on Married Women's Volunteer Work Participation," Journal of Consumer Research 7 (March 1981): 372-79. [BACK]

48. Patricia Klobus Edwards, John N. Edwards, and Ann DeWitt Watts, "Women, Work, and Social Participation," Journal of Voluntary Action Research 13 continue

(January-March 1984): 17; and Barbara Hargrove, Jean Miller Schmidt, and Sheila Greeve Davaney, "Religion and the Changing Role of Women," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 480 (July 1985): 117-31. [BACK]

49. Edwards, Edwards, and Watts, "Women, Work, and Social Participation." [BACK]

50. The substantial role played by women in the voluntary aspects of American associational life is brought out in Anne Firor Scott, "Women's Voluntary Associations: From Philanthropy to Reform" (Paper presented at the conference "Women and Philanthropy," CUNY Graduate Center, June 1987). [BACK]

51. Ronald S. Burt, "Corporate Philanthropy as a Cooptive Relationship," Social Forces 62 (December 1983): 419-49. A Study of business philanthropy more based on economic models, especially transaction costs economics, than my own approach is Joseph Galaskiewicz, The Social Organization of an Urban Grants Economy (New York: Academic Press, 1985). [BACK]

52. See Lester M. Salamon and Alan J. Abramson, The Federal Budget and the Non-Profit Sector (Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute, 1982). See also Lester Salamon, "Non-Profit Organizations: The Lost Opportunity," in The Reagan Record: An Assessment of America's Changing Domestic Priorities, ed. John C. Palmer and Isabel V. Sawhill (Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute, 1984), 261-68. [BACK]

53. The Conference Board, Annual Survey of Corporate Contributions (New York: The Conference Board, 1980-85). [BACK]

54. The figures and quotes in this paragraph all come from Kathleen Teltsch, "Corporate Pressures Slowing Gifts to Charity," New York Times, 8 July 1987, 1. [BACK]

55. Hervé Varenne, Americans Together: Structured Diversity in a Midwestern Town (New York: Teachers College Press, 1977), 32. Had Varenne researched the matter further, he would have discovered that the American Farm Bureau Federation is the prototype of private agencies serving public functions. The lack of public interest that he found in its affairs, therefore, may be due to its quasi-official relationship to the state. See Grant McConnell, The Decline of Agrarian Democracy (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1959). [BACK]

56. Michel Crozier, The Trouble with America: Why the System Is Breaking Down (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984), 85. [BACK]

57. Richard M. Merelman, Making Something of Ourselves: On Culture and Politics in the United States (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984). [BACK]

58. Isabel Wilkerson, "Code of Highway: Finders Keepers," New York Times, 24 November 1987, A16. [BACK]

59. "From Watergate, Training in Ethics," New York Times, 21 March 1988, A16. [BACK]

60. Mary Douglas and Baron Isherwood, The World of Goods: Towards an Anthropology of Consumption (London: Penguin Books, 1980). [BACK]

61. On apprenticeship, see William J. Rorabaugh, The Craft Apprenticeship: From Franklin to the Machine Age in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); on ethnic family ties, see Pyong Gap Min, Ethnic Business Enterprise: Korean Small Business in Atlanta (New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1988), 91-95. [BACK]

62. T. J. Jackson Lears, "From Salvation to Self-Realization," in T. J. Jackson continue

Lears and Richard Wrightman Fox, The Culture of Consumption: Critical Essays in American History, 1880-1980 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1983), 3-38, esp. p. 20. [BACK]

63. Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985), 89-94. [BACK]

64. Stephen Fox, The Mirror Makers: A History of Advertising and Its Creators (New York: William Morrow, 1984), 316-17. [BACK]

65. Tom Engelhardt, ''Children's Television: The Shortcake Strategy," in Watching Television: A Pantheon Guide to Popular Culture, ed. Todd Gitlin (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986), 68-110. [BACK]

66. Merelman, Making Something of Ourselves, 124. [BACK]

67. Quoted in Fox, Mirror Makers, 326. [BACK]

68. Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, 206-34. [BACK]

69. Michael Schudson, Advertising: The Uneasy Persuasion (New York: Basic Books, 1984), 221. [BACK]

70. See, e.g., Ralph Miliband, The State in Capitalist Society: An Analysis of Western Systems of Power (New York: Basic Books, 1969), 215-18. [BACK]

71. Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays (New York: Basic Books, 1973); see also James Clifford and George Marcus, Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986). [BACK]

72. Merelman, Making Something of Ourselves, 134. [BACK]

73. Varda Langholz Leymore, Hidden Myth: Structure and Symbol in Advertising (New York: Basic Books, 1975); cited in Merelman, Making Something of Ourselves, 140-41. [BACK]

74. Stanley Hauerwas, A Community of Character: Toward a Constructive Christian Social Ethic (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981), 84. [BACK]

75. David L. Gutmann, Reclaimed Powers: Towards a New Psychology of Men and Women in Later Life (New York: Basic Books, 1987), esp. 246-49. [BACK]

76. For a discussion of some of these issues, see Norman Daniels, Am I My Parents' Keeper? An Essay on Justice Between the Young and the Old (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988). [BACK]

77. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), 140, 288. [BACK]

78. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1952), 287. [BACK]

79. Joseph Addison, in The Spectator, no. 381 (20 August 1714); cited in Robert E. Goodin, Protecting the Vulnerable: A Reanalysis of Our Social Responsibilities (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), 177. [BACK]

80. Thomas Schwartz, "Obligations to Posterity," in Obligations to Future Generations, ed. R. I. Sikora and Brian Barry (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978), 3-13. [BACK]

81. See, e.g., Gary S. Becker, "Altruism, Egoism, and Genetic Fitness," Journal continue

of Economic Literature 14 (September 1976): 817-26; and Howard Margolis, Selfishness, Altruism, and Rationality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982). The essays in Edmund S. Phelps, Altruism, Morality, and Economic Theory (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1975), especially Phelps's introduction, view some degree of altruism, independent of economic motivations, as necessary for the social order. An effort to use economic methods to increase altruism is David Collard, Altruism and Economy: A Study in Non-selfish Economics (Oxford: Martin Robertson, 1978). [BACK]

82. Marcel Mauss, The Gift (New York: W.W. Norton, 1967); Richard Titmuss, The Gift Relationship: From Human Blood to Social Policy (New York: Pantheon Books, 1971); Marshall Sahlins, Stone Age Economics (Chicago: Aldine, 1972); and Lewis Hyde, The Gift: Imagination and the Erotic Life of Poetry (New York: Vintage Books, 1983). [BACK]

83. See Roberta G. Simmons, Susan D. Klein, and Richard L. Simmons, Gift of Life: The Social and Psychological Impact of Organ Transplantation (New York: John Wiley, 1977). [BACK]

84. E.g., Allan Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind: How Higher Education Has Failed Democracy and Impoverished the Souls of Today's Students (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987). [BACK]

1. Theodore J. Lowi, The End of Liberalism: The Second Republic of the United States, 2d ed. (New York: W.W. Norton, 1979), 267. [BACK]

2. Kenneth H. F. Dyson, The State Tradition in Western Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 139. [BACK]

3. "This very well-being of the State is secured not solely through power, but also through ethics and justice; and in the last resort the disruption of these can endanger the maintenance of power itself" (Friedrich Meineicke, Machiavellianism [New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1957], 3). [BACK]

4. Albert Hirschman, The Passions and the Interests: Political Arguments for Capitalism Before Its Triumph (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977), 50. [BACK]

5. David Hume, "Of the Original Contract," in Essays: Moral, Political, and Literary, ed. T. H. Greene and T. H. Grose (London: Longmans, Green, 1907), 1:443-60; see esp. p. 456. [BACK]

6. John Dunn, Western Political Theory in the Face of the Future (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 54. [BACK]

7. A. John Simmons, Moral Principles and Political Obligations (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1979), 192. [BACK]

8. Carole Pateman, The Problem of Political Obligation: A Critical Analysis of Liberal Theory (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1985), 180. [BACK]

9. See Stephen Holmes, Benjamin Constant and the Making of Modern Liber- soft

alism (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1984); and Nancy L. Rosenblum, Another Liberalism: Romanticism and the Reconstruction of Liberal Thought (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987). [BACK]

10. Gregory S. Kavka, Hobbesian Moral and Political Theory (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986), 179-244. [BACK]

11. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, ed. C. B. MacPherson (New York: Penguin Books, 1961), 209. [BACK]

12. Ibid., 119-47. [BACK]

13. John Dunn, The Political Thought of John Locke: An Historical Account of the Argument of "The Two Treatises of Government" (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), 100. [BACK]

14. Sheldon Wolin, Politics and Vision (Boston: Little, Brown, 1960), 335. [BACK]

15. Hirschman, Passions and Interests . [BACK]

16. See Chapter 1 above and Allan Silver, "Friendship and Trust as Moral Ideals" (paper presented at the 1985 meetings of the American Sociological Association). [BACK]

17. Anthony Arblaster, The Rise and Decline of Western Liberalism (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984), 17. [BACK]

18. See Steven Seidman, Liberalism and the Origins of European Social Theory (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1983). [BACK]

19. Quoted in Charles Camic, "The Utilitarians Revisited," American Journal of Sociology 85 (November 1979): 533. [BACK]

20. For background, see Michael Freeden, The New Liberalism: An Ideology of Social Reform (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978); and Peter F. Clarke, Liberals and Social Democrats (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978). [BACK]

21. Stefan Collini, Liberalism and Sociology: L. T. Hobhouse and Political Argument in England, 1880-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979). [BACK]

22. Arthur Vidich and Stanford Lyman, American Sociology: Worldly Rejections of Religion and Their Directions (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1985). [BACK]

23. T. H. Marshall, "Citizenship and Social Class," in Class, Citizenship, and Social Development: Essays by T. H. Marshall, ed. S. M. Lipset (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Books, 1965), 71-134. [BACK]

24. Emile Durkheim, The Division of Labor in Society (New York: Free Press, 1964), 28. [BACK]

25. Cited in David Nichols, Three Varieties of Pluralism (New York: St. Martins Press, 1974), 8. [BACK]

26. William Kornhauser, The Politics of Mass Society (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1959). [BACK]

27. Wolin, Politics and Vision, 343. [BACK]

28. David B. Truman, The Governmental Process: Political Interests and Public Opinion (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1951), 16, 18, 25, 53, 54, 56, 61, 166, 316, 340, 512, 524. [BACK]

29. Donald R. Matthews, U.S. Senators and Their World (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1960), 92-117. break [BACK]

30. William S. White, Citadel (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1968), 81-94. [BACK]

31. Arthur Maass, Muddy Waters: The Army Engineers and the Nation's Rivers (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1951), set the standard for this kind of research. On clientelism in anthropology, see S. N. Eisenstadt and L. Roniger, Patrons, Clients, and Friends: Interpersonal Relations and the Structure of Trust in Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984). [BACK]

32. Edward C. Banfield and James Q. Wilson, City Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1963), 116. [BACK]

33. Hadley Arkes, The Philosopher in the City: The Moral Dimensions of Politics (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981), 304. [BACK]

34. Sidney Verba and Norman H. Nie, Participation in America: Political Democracy and Social Equality (New York: Harper and Row, 1972), 116. [BACK]

35. Angus Campbell et al., The American Voter (New York: John Wiley, 1960), 128. [BACK]

36. The literature on trust is very large, since it seems to be amenable to survey research. For recent statements, see Paul R. Abramson and Ada W. Finifter, "On the Meaning of Political Trust: New Evidence from Items Introduced in 1978," American Journal of Political Science 25 (May 1981): 297-307; Geraint Parry, "Trust, Distrust, and Consensus," British Journal of Political Science 6 (April 1976): 129-42; and the discussion in Richard M. Merelman, Making Something of Ourselves: On Culture and Politics in the United States (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984), 12. [BACK]

37. Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963), and all the books spawned by this work, too numerous to list here. [BACK]

38. The inability of large and bureaucratic groups to act like individuals has not generally been discussed in the political science literature, but one scholar who recognizes that the classic pluralist notion of membership groups no longer applies to the interest-group struggles of large-scale institutions in Robert H. Salisbury; see his "Interest Representation: The Dominance of Institutions," American Political Science Review 78 (March 1984): 64-76. [BACK]

39. Fred J. Greenstein, "The Changing Pattern of Urban Politics," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 353 (May 1964): 1-13; and Robert H. Salisbury, "Urban Politics: The New Convergence of Power," Journal of Politics 26 (November 1964): 775-97. [BACK]

40. A convenient summary of the evidence in favor of the decline of political parties is William J. Crotty and Gary C. Jacobson, American Parties in Decline (Boston: Little, Brown, 1980). For an alternative view, see Xandra Kayden and Eddie Mahe, Jr., The Party Goes On: The Persistence of the Two-Party System in the United States (New York: Basic Books, 1985). [BACK]

41. Edward R. Tufte, Political Control of the Economy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1978). break [BACK]

42. See Larry J. Sabato, The Rise of Political Consultants: New Ways of Winning Elections (New York: Basic Books, 1981). [BACK]

43. Benjamin Ginsberg, The Captive Public: How Mass Opinion Promotes State Power (New York: Basic Books, 1986), 86-148. [BACK]

44. This lack of reciprocity is one of the major themes of Michael J. Malbin, Unelected Representatives: Congressional Staff and the Future of Representative Government (New York: Basic Books, 1980). [BACK]

45. Stephen S. Smith, "New Patterns of Decisionmaking in Congress," in The New Direction in American Politics, ed. John E. Chubb and Paul E. Peterson (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1985), 223-30. [BACK]

46. Burdett A. Loomis, "The 'Me Decade' and the Changing Context of House Leadership," in Understanding Congressional Leadership, ed. Frank H. Mackaman (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1981), 157-79. See also Thomas E. Mann and Norman J. Ornstein, eds., The New Congress (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1981). [BACK]

47. Samuel Kernell, "Campaigning, Governing, and the Contemporary Presidency," in Chubb and Peterson, New Direction in American Politics, 140. [BACK]

48. For an overview of these changes, see James Q. Wilson, ed., The Politics of Regulation (New York: Basic Books, 1980); and Martha Derthick and Paul J. Quirk, The Politics of Deregulation (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1985). [BACK]

49. Mancur Olson, Jr., The Logic of Collective Action, rev. ed. (New York: Schocken Books, 1971), 12, 13. [BACK]

50. For an overview of the literature, see Peter H. Aranson, American Government: Strategy and Choice (Boston: Little, Brown, 1981). That behind this research does lie a normative theory is one of the points made by Peter H. Aranson and Peter C. Ordeshook, "Public Interest, Private Interest, and the Democratic Polity," in The Democratic State, ed. Roger Benjamin and Stephen L. Elkin (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1985), 87-177. [BACK]

51. John Plamanatz, The English Utilitarians, 2d rev. ed. (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1958), 173-75: cited in Brian Barry, Sociologists, Economists, and Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), 176. [BACK]

52. See, e.g., Oliver E. Williamson, Markets and Hierarchies, Analysis and AntiTrust Implications: A Study in the Economics of Internal Organization (New York: Free Press, 1975); James M. Buchanan and Gordon Tullock, The Calculus of Consent: Logical Foundations of Constitutional Democracy (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1971); and William H. Riker, Liberalism Against Populism: A Confrontation Between the Theory of Democracy and the Theory of Social Choice (San Francisco: W.H. Freeman, 1982). [BACK]

53. Buchanan and Tullock, Calculus of Consent, 291. [BACK]

54. James M. Buchanan and Richard E. Wagner, Democracy in Deficit: The Political Legacy of Lord Keynes (New York: Academic Press, 1977), 175. break [BACK]

55. H. Geoffrey Brennan and James M. Buchanan, Monopoly in Money and Inflation (London: Institute of Economic Affairs, 1981), 65. [BACK]

56. H. Geoffrey Brennan and James M. Buchanan, The Reason of Rules: Constitutional Political Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 150. [BACK]

57. Ronald H. Coase, "The Nature of the Firm," Economia 4 (November 1937): 386-405. [BACK]

58. Oliver E. Williamson, Economic Organization: Firms, Markets, and Policy Control (New York: New York University Press, 1986), 147, 163, 174. See also the discussion in Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis, Democracy and Capitalism: Property, Community, and the Contractions of Modern Social Thought (New York: Basic Books, 1986), 196-97. [BACK]

59. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), 360. [BACK]

60. Ibid., 468. [BACK]

61. Ibid., 471. [BACK]

62. Ibid., 474. [BACK]

63. Lawrence Kohlberg, The Philosophy of Moral Development (New York: Harper and Row, 1981). [BACK]

64. Rawls, Theory of Justice, 490. [BACK]

65. Ibid., 474. [BACK]

66. Ibid., 475, 490. [BACK]

67. Ibid., 533. [BACK]

68. Carol Gilligan, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982), 19. [BACK]

69. For a criticism of Rawls and Kohlberg that emphasizes the paucity of storytelling capacity in their liberal theory, see Stanley Hauerwas, A Community of Character: Toward a Constructive Christian Social Ethic (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981). [BACK]

70. Rawls, Theory of Justice, 454. [BACK]

71. Michael J. Sandel, Liberalism and the Limits of Justice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 183, 175. [BACK]

72. Rawls, Theory of Justice, 115, 337. [BACK]

73. Pateman, Problem of Political Obligation, 113, points out some of of the similarities between Rawls and Hegel on these issues. [BACK]

74. Lawrence Mead, Beyond Entitlement: The Social Obligations of Citizenship (New York: Free Press, 1986), 6, 8. [BACK]

75. Ibid., 228. [BACK]

76. See James T. Kloppenberg, Uncertain Victory: Social Democracy and Progressivism in European and American Thought, 1870-1920 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986). [BACK]

77. See, e.g., the essay entitled "Social Welfare and the Art of Giving," in The continue

Philosophy of Welfare: Selected Writings of Richard M. Titmuss, ed. Brian Abel-Smith and Kay Titmuss (London: Allen and Unwin, 1987), 113-27. [BACK]

78. Marshall, "Citizenship and Social Class," 101. [BACK]

79. Gösta Rehn, "The Wages of Success," in Norden--The Passion for Equality, ed. Stephen R. Graubard (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1986), 173. [BACK]

80. Ronald Dworkin, "Liberalism," in Public and Private Morality, ed. Stuart Hampshire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), 142. See also Dworkin's essay "Neutrality, Equality and Liberalism," reprinted in Liberalism Reconsidered, ed. Douglas MacLean and Claudia Mills (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Allenheld, 1983), 1-11. [BACK]

81. Bruce A. Ackerman, Social Justice in the Liberal State (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1980), 368; cited in Sandel, Liberalism and the Limits of Justice, 176. [BACK]

82. Russell L. Hanson, The Democratic Imagination in America: Conversations with Our Past (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1985), 258. [BACK]

83. Sheldon S. Wolin, "The New Public Philosophy," democracy 1 (October 1981): 36. [BACK]

84. John D. Stephens, The Transition from Capitalism to Socialism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986). [BACK]

85. Stein Ringen, The Possibility of Politics: A Study in the Political Economy of the Welfare State (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987), 207. [BACK]

86. Richard J. Estes, The Social Progress of Nations (New York: Praeger, 1984). [BACK]

1. Ole P. Kristensen, Voeksten * i den offentlige sektor (Copenhagen: Danish Union of Lawyers and Economists, 1987), 15. Translations of titles from the Scandinavian languages will be found in the bibliography. [BACK]

2. Stein Kuhnle, "Offentlige utgifter og velferdsutgifter," in Velferdsstaten: Vekst og omstilling, ed. Stein Kuhnle and Liv Solheim (Oslo: Tano, 1985), 56. [BACK]

3. Lars Nørby Johansen and Jon Eivind Kolberg, "Welfare State Regression in Scandinavia?" in The Welfare State and Its Aftermath, ed. S. N. Eisenstadt and Ora Ahimeir (London: Croom Held, 1985), 153. [BACK]

4. The most comprehensive account of the growth, accomplishments, and dilemmas of the Scandinavian welfare states available in English is Peter Flora, ed., Growth to Limits, vol. 1: Sweden, Norway, Finland, Denmark (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1988). [BACK]

5. Quoted in Seppo Hentilä, "The Origins of the Folkhem Ideology in Swedish Social Democracy," Scandinavian Journal of History 3, no. 1 (1978): 327. [BACK]

6. For data on the degree to which welfare programs become part of the "claims" that families can make to support their claims in the market, see Lee Rain- soft

water, Martin Rein, and Joseph Schwartz, Income Packaging in the Welfare State: A Comparative Study of Family Income (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), 12-24. [BACK]

7. Kari Wærness and Stein Ringen, "Women in the Welfare State," in The Scandinavian Model: Welfare States and Welfare Research, ed. Robert Erikson et al. (Armonk, N.Y.: Sharpe, 1986), 162. [BACK]

8. On the various Swedish child-allowance programs, see Åke Elmér, Svensk socialpolitik (Lund: LiberLäromedel, 1981), 97; on the Danish, see Lars Nørby Johansen, The Danish Welfare State, 1945-1980 (Odense: Institute for Social Science, 1982), 29-35. [BACK]

9. Kuhnle, "Offentlige utgifter," 61. [BACK]

10. Olav Sunnanå, Det ikkje-offentlege skoleverket (Oslo: Institute for Educational Research, 1984). [BACK]

11. Niels Egelund, Privatskole kontra folkeskole (Hørsholm, Den.: Educational Psychology Publishers, 1988), 9. [BACK]

12. The 1980 studies are, for Sweden, Elisabet Näsman, Kerstin Nordström, and Ruth Hammarström, Föräldrars arbete och barns villkor (Stockholm: LiberTryck, 1983), 50; and, for Denmark, Bjarne Hjorth Andersen and Per Schultz Jørgensen, Dagpasning for de 6-10 årige (Copenhagen: Danish Social Research Institute, 1987), 30. The 1984 figures for both countries may be found in Björn Flising and Inge Johansson, Fritidshem i Norden (Stockholm: Nordic Council, 1987), 96. [BACK]

13. Such programs in Denmark are analyzed in Per Schultz Jørgensen, Birthe Gamst, and Bjarne Hjorth Andersen, Efter skoletid (Copenhagen: Danish Social Research Institute, 1986). The extent of after-school activities in Sweden is discussed in Skolbarnsomsorgen (Stockholm: Government Official Reports, 1985). Kurt Klaudi Klausen, Per Ardua ad Astra (Odense: Odense University Press, 1988), 41, discusses public funding of sports clubs. [BACK]

14. Lars Grue, Barns levekår: En faktasamling (Oslo: Institute for Applied Social Research, 1987), 18. In Denmark, the question of whether newspaper boys ought to be organized in labor unions was widely debated in the fall of 1987. [BACK]

15. See, e.g., Gustav Jonsson, Att bryta det sociala arvet (Stockholm: Tiden-Folksam, 1973); or Erik Jørgen Hansen, Hvem bryder den sociale arv? 2 vols. (Copenhagen: Danish Social Research Institute, 1982). [BACK]

16. Turid Vogt Grinde, Barnevern i Norden (Stockholm: Nordic Council, 1985), 107; and Barns behov och föräldrars rätt (Stockholm: Government Official Reports, 1986), 79. [BACK]

17. Barns behov och föräldrars rätt, 71. [BACK]

18. This citation is from a Swedish translation of the Spiegel article in Göteborg-Posten, 13 November 1983, 34. [BACK]

19. Grinde, Barnevern i Norden, 124-25. [BACK]

20. Merete Watt Boolsen, Jill Mehlbye, and Lisbeth Sparre, Børns opvoekst * uden for hjemmet (Copenhagen: Local Government Research Institute on Public Fi- soft

nance and Administration, 1986). In December 1984, 14,640 Danish children or young people were living outside their homes (p. 9). [BACK]

21. How this works in Norway is described in Karen Hassel, "Psykologen som sakkyndig i barneverns-og barnefordelingssaker," Nordisk psykologi 36, no. 4 (1984): 237-47. [BACK]

22. Gunilla Larsson, Gunilla Ekenstein, and Ewa Rasch, "Are the Social Workers Prepared to Assist a Changing Population of Dysfunctional Parents in Sweden?" Child Abuse and Neglect 8 (1984): 9-14; and Gunilla Larsson and Gunilla Ekenstein, "Institutional Care of Infants in Sweden," Child Abuse and Neglect 7 (1983): 11-16; both cited in Grinde, Barnevern i Norden , 118. My emphasis. [BACK]

23. Jürgen Habermas, "Law as Medium and Law as Institution," in Dilemmas of Law in the Welfare State , ed. Gunther Teubner (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1986), 203-20, quote p. 210. [BACK]

24. Lise Togeby, "Notat om børnepasningsdækning i de nordiske lande" (Århus University, Institute for Political Science, October 1987, photocopy), 18. [BACK]

25. Mogens Nygaard Christoffersen, Ole Bertelsen, and Poul Vestergaard, Hvem passer vore børn? (Copenhagen: Danish Social Research Institute, 1987), 40. [BACK]

26. Ole Langsted and Dion Sommer, Småbørns livsvilkår i Danmark (Copenhagen: Hans Reitzels, 1988), 100-101. [BACK]

27. Näsman, Nordström, and Hammarström, Föräldrars arbete , 49, 51. See also Mårten Lagergren et al., Tid för omsory (Stockholm: LiberFörlag/Institute for Future Studies, 1982), 137-45. A 1982-83 study showed somewhat greater reliance on public day care; see Berit Kemvall-Ljung, Statistiska uppgifter om småbarns livsvillkor i Sverige (Stockholm: Childhood, Society, and Development in the Nordic Countries Project, 1986), 27. [BACK]

28. Stein Ringen, The Possibility of Politics: A Study in the Political Economy of the Welfare State (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987), 130. The best study of the changing Swedish family in English is David Popenoe, Disturbing the Net: Family Change and Decline in Modern Societies (Hawthorne, N.Y.: Aldine de Gruyter, 1988). [BACK]

29. Mogens Nygaard Christoffersen, Familien under forandring (Copenhagen: Danish Social Research Institute, 1987), 19, 21, 30. [BACK]

30. Grinde, Barnevern i Norden , 95. [BACK]

31. On Norway, see Jan Erik Kristiansen, "Familien i endring: Et demografisk perspektiv," in Familien i endring , ed. Jan Erik Kristiansen and Tone Schou Wetlesen (Oslo: Institute for Sociology, 1986), 25; on Denmark, Christoffersen, Familien under forandring 23-24; and on Sweden, Neil Gilbert, "Sweden's Disturbing Family Trends," Wall Street Journal , 22 June 1987, 6. [BACK]

32. Inger Koch-Neilsen, Skilsmisser (Copenhagen: Danish Social Research Institute, 1983), 116-18. [BACK]

33. Inger Koch-Nielsen and Henning Transgaard, Familiemønstre efter skilsmisse (Copenhagen: Danish Social Research Institute, 1987), 21; Lennart Köhler et al., continue

Health Implications of Family Breakdown (Stockholm: Nordic School of Public Health, 1987), 19-20; Svend Heinild and Frode Muldkjær, Skilsmissens børn (Copenhagen: Rhodos, 1982); and Inger Myhr Lunde and Liv Else Schjelderup, Etter skilsmisse (Stavanger: Norwegian University Press, 1985). A long-term study of Danish divorce concluded that while the price was high, children were able to cope, in some cases better than adults, who tended to use their children as pawns in struggles with their ex-spouses. See Morten Nissen, Skilsmissens pris (Copenhagen: Danish Social Research Institute, 1988). [BACK]

34. Michael T. Hannan, Nancy Brandon Tuma, and Lyle Groeneveld, "Income and Marital Events: Evidence from an Income Maintenance Experiment," American Journal of Sociology 82 (May 1977): 1186-1211. [BACK]

35. Lars Guldbrandsen and Catherine Ulstrup Tønnessen, Barnetilsyn og yrkesdeltakelse blant småbarnsmødre (Oslo: Institute for Social Research, 1987), 10. [BACK]

36. Natalie Rogoff Ramsøy and Lise Kjølsrød, Velferdsstatens yrker (Oslo: Institute for Applied Social Research, 1985), 10. [BACK]

37. Bent Rold Andersen, "Rationality and Irrationality of the Nordic Welfare State," in Norden: The Passion for Equality , ed. Stephen R. Graubard (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1986), 137. [BACK]

38. See Helga Maria Hernes, "Women and the Welfare State: The Transition from Private to Public Dependence," in Patriarchy in a Welfare Society , ed. Harriet Holter (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1984), 26-45. [BACK]

39. Anette Borchorst and Birte Siim, Kvinder i velfoerdstaten * (Ålborg: Ålborg University Press, 1984); see also Birte Siim, "The Scandinavian Welfare States: Towards Sexual Equality or a New Kind of Male Domination?" Acta Sociologica 30, no. 3/4 (1987): 255-70. [BACK]

40. Anna Hedborg and Rudolf Meidner, Folkhemsmodellen (Stockholm: Raben and Sjögren, 1984). [BACK]

41. Quoted in Hentilä, "Origins of the Folkhem Ideology," 327. [BACK]

42. Johan Borgen, Barndommens rike; quoted in Vigdis Christie, "Noermiljøet * ," in Det moderne Norge , vol. 2: Samliv og noermiljø * , ed. Kari Wærness and Vigdis Christie (Oslo: Gyldendal, 1982), 274. [BACK]

43. Gösta Esping-Andersen, Politics Against Markets: The Social Democratic Road to Power (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1985), 49-50. [BACK]

44. Natalie Rogoff Ramsøy, "From Necessity to Choice: Social Change in Norway," in Erikson et al., The Scandinavian Model , 100. [BACK]

45. Harry Haue, Jørgen Olsen, and Jørn Aarup-Kristiansen, Det ny Danmark, 1890-1985 (Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1985), 219; and Hans Christian Johansen, Dansk historisk statistik, 1814-1980 (Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1985), 119. [BACK]

46. Esping-Andersen, Politics Against Markets , 187. [BACK]

47. Mats Franzén and Eva Sandstedt, Grannskap och stadsplanering (Uppsala: Institute for Sociology, 1981), 228-29. break [BACK]

48. Thomas J. Anton, Administered Politics: Elite Political Culture in Sweden (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1980), 2. [BACK]

49. Ramsøy, ''From Necessity to Choice," 100. [BACK]

50. See Esping-Andersen, Politics Against Markets , 179-90, on the differences between Danish and Swedish housing policies. [BACK]

51. Bent Rold Andersen, "Rationality and Irrationality," 133. [BACK]

52. Ringen, The Possibility of Politics , 121-40; and Rehn, "The Wages of Success," in Graubard, Norden , 164-65. [BACK]

53. All these data are from Christina Axelsson, "Family and Social Integration," in Welfare in Transition , ed. Robert Erikson and Rune Åberg (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987), 217-32. [BACK]

54. Levnadsförhållanden (Stockholm: Central Statistical Department, 1987), 181-95. [BACK]

55. Cecilla Henning, Mats Lieberg, and Karin Palm Lindén, Boende, omsorg och sociala nätverk (Stockholm: Institute for Construction Research, 1987), 174-75. [BACK]

56. Mogens Kjær Jensen et al., Sociale netvoerk * og socialpolitik (Copenhagen: Danish Social Research Institute, 1987), 104-13, 162-65. [BACK]

57. Per Nyberg, Sociala nätverk och problemlösning (Lund: Center for Social Medicine, 1987). [BACK]

58. Thomas Hjortsjö, Självmord i Stockholm (Göteborg: School of Public Health, 1983), 112. [BACK]

59. Statistisk årbog för Sverige 1988 (Stockholm: Central Statistical Department, 1988), 327. [BACK]

60. For data and analysis, see Nils Retterstøl, Selvmord (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1985), 26-29. [BACK]

61. See Jacques Blum, De grimme oellinger * (Copenhagen: Aschehoug, 1985), 116. The degree to which figures like the suicide rate ought to be taken seriously has become the subject of some debate in Denmark. Jacques Blum and Michael Porsager, in their recent book Det andet Danmark (Copenhagen: Politiken, 1987), argue that by nearly all accounts--from suicide to drug addiction to crime--Denmark is far worse off now than ever before, but the reliability of their data can be, and has been, challenged. For a critical review, see Berl Kutchinsky, "Sensationslyst skæmmer rapport om vor elendighed," Weekendavisen , 6-12 November 1987, 10. [BACK]

62. For Sweden, see Rapport 87: Alkohol-och-narkotika utvecklingen i Sverige (Stockholm: Center for Alcohol and Narcotics Information, 1987), 190; for Norway, see Sverre Brun-Gulbrandsen, "Våre forfedres alkoholbruk," in Alkohol i Norge , ed. Oddvar Arner, Ragnar Hauge, and Ole-Jørgen Skog (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1985), 39. Figures on Denmark are contained in Dansk alkoholstatistik , 5th ed. (Copenhagen: Danish Temperance Organization, 1986), 7. [BACK]

63. On tobacco use in Sweden, see Tobaksvanor i Sverige (Stockholm: Social Commission, 1986), 29; on narcotics, Rapport 87 , 224-40. break [BACK]

64. Hanns von Hofer, Nordisk kriminalstatistik 1950-1980 (Copenhagen: Nordic Statistical Secretariat, 1982), 50, 72. [BACK]

65. Hjorstjö, Självmord , 36-37, 96; and Bjørn Bjørnsen et al., Alkohol og vold (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1985). [BACK]

66. Siri Næss, Selvmord, ensomhet, og samfunnsutvikling (Oslo: Institute for Applied Social Research, 1987). Næss attributes the higher suicide rates in Denmark and Norway compared to Sweden as being due to the later urbanization of the former. [BACK]

67. Blum, De grimme oellinger * , 116-24. [BACK]

68. An epidemiological study of suicides in Sweden, however, indicated that a surprisingly large number of socially alienated people were in recent contact with the state in the form of psychiatric care; see Socialstyrelsen Redovisar, Självmord inom den psykiatriska vården (Stockholm: Social Commission, 1985). [BACK]

69. Erik Jørgen Hansen, Danskernes levevilkår (Copenhagen: Hans Reitzels, 1986), 70. [BACK]

70. Gösta Esping-Andersen and Walter Korpi, "From Poor Relief to Institutional Welfare States," in Erikson et al., The Scandinavian Model , 40, 42. My sense is that Esping-Andersen and Korpi mean by "civil society" the economic sector, not, as I have been using the term in this book, the social and moral sector. [BACK]

71. Helga Maria Hernes, Welfare State and Woman Power (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1987), 159. [BACK]

72. Esping-Andersen and Korpi, "From Poor Relief to Institutional Welfare States," 69. [BACK]

73. The consolidation of the older welfare state is discussed in Sven E. Olsson, "Toward a Transformation of the Swedish Welfare State," in Modern Welfare States: A Comparative View of Trends and Prospects , ed. Robert R. Friedman, Neil Gilbert, and Moshe Sherer (Brighton, Eng.: Wheatsheaf Books, 1987), 78. [BACK]

74. Andreas Hompland, ed., Scenarier 2000 (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1987), 40. [BACK]

75. The lack of a legitimacy crisis in the Scandinavian welfare state is well documented. For Denmark, see Jørgen Goul Andersen, "Vælgernes holdninger til den offentlige udgiftspolitik," in Fra voekst * til omstilling , ed. Karl-Henrik Bentzon (Copenhagen: News from Political Science, 1988), 145-90. For Sweden, see Sören Holmberg, Väljare i förändring (Stockholm: Publica, 1984), 170; and Sören Holmberg and Mikael Gilljam, Väljare och val i Sverige (Stockholm: Bonniers, 1987), 265. For Norway, see Jon Eivind Kolberg and Per Arnt Pettersen, "Om velferdsstatens politiske basis," Tidsskrift for samfunnsforskning 22, no. 2/3 (1981): 193-222. [BACK]

76. For an argument that the welfare state does raise economic problems--all of them attributable to politics--see Gunnar Eliasson, "Is the Swedish Welfare State in Trouble?" Industrial Institute for Economic and Social Research, Working Paper no. 151 (Stockholm, 1985). [BACK]

77. Bent Rold Andersen, "Rationality and Irrationality," 116. For a much more continue

conservative expression of a similar point of view, see David Gress, "Daily Life in the Danish Welfare State," The Public Interest 69 (Fall 1982): 33-44. [BACK]

78. Staffan B. Linder, Den härtlösa välfärdsstaten (Stockholm: Timbro, 1983). [BACK]

79. See the discussions in Anne Showstack Sassoon, ed., Women and the State (London: Hutchinson, 1987). [BACK]

80. Niels Ole Finnemann, I broderskabets aand (Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1985), 81. [BACK]

81. See, e.g., Kari Wærness, "Caring as Women's Work in the Welfare State," in Holter, Patriarchy in a Welfare Society, 67-87. [BACK]

82. Kari Wærness, "A Feminist Perspective on the New Ideology of 'Community Care' for the Elderly," Acta Sociologica 30, no. 2 (1987): 149. [BACK]

83. The day-care center in Denmark that is watching my two children as I write this chapter has been severely hurt by personnel cutbacks, but the people who work there try their best and my children are (most days) happy for the experience. Any criticisms I make of day-care centers in this and the following chapter should be balanced against the fact that, if they did not exist, these chapters would have been less thorough. [BACK]

84. Christoffersen, Bertelsen, and Vestergaard, Hvem passer vore børn? 110-22, 137-45. [BACK]

85. On Norway, see Agnes Andenæs and Hanne Haavind, Små barns livsvilkår i Norge (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1987), 66; and Christie, "Nærmiljøet," 233. On Sweden, see Marianne Sundström, A Study in the Growth of Part-Time Work in Sweden (Stockholm: Center for Working Life, 1987). In recent years the percentage of part-time work among Swedish women has begun to decline. [BACK]

86. Ramsøy, "From Necessity to Choice," 102. [BACK]

87. Esping-Andersen and Korpi, "From Poor Relief to Institutional Welfare States," 40. [BACK]

88. For a review of the issues in Great Britain, Australia, and the United States, see Robert E. Goodin and Julian LeGrand, eds., Not Only the Poor: The Middle Class and the Welfare State (London: Allen and Unwin, 1987). [BACK]

89. Ringen, The Possibility of Politics, 76. [BACK]

90. On Denmark, see Christoffersen, Bertelsen, and Vestergaard, Hvem passer vore børn? 57; on Sweden, see Kemvall-Ljung, Statistika uppgifter, 33. For a general overview in English, see Arnlaug Leira, Day Care for Children in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden (Oslo: Institute for Social Research, 1987), 82, 118. [BACK]

91. Oddbjørn Knutsen, "Sosiale klasser og politiske verdier i Norge," Tidsskrift for samfunnsforskning 27, no. 4 (1986): 263-87. [BACK]

92. Jørgen Goul Andersen, "Konservatismen, vælgerne og velfærdsstaten," (Århus University, Institute for Political Science, 1987), 5. [BACK]

93. Stefan Svallfors, "Kampen om välfärdstaten," Zenit 4, no. 4 (1986): 5-24. [BACK]

94. Esping-Andersen, Politics Against Markets, 31-36. [BACK]

95. Steven Kelman, Regulating America, Regulating Sweden: A Comparative continue

Study of Occupational Safety and Health Policy (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1981). [BACK]

96. Erik allardt, Att ha, att älska, att vara (Lund: Argos, 1975), 27-35, quote p. 30. [BACK]

1. An interesting effort to capture the generational character of social democracy lies in the portrait of two fictional Swedes drawn by Hans L. Zetterberg, "The Rational Humanitarians," in Norden: The Passion for Equality, ed. Stephen R. Graubard (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1986), 80-86. [BACK]

2. This statement is more true of Denmark than of Sweden, where age is not as important a factor in determining support for social democracy (Sören Holmberg and Mikael Gilljam, Väljare och val i Sverige [Stockholm: Bonniers, 1987], 176). In Denmark, only 15 percent of the voters between eighteen and twenty-four voted for the Social Democrats in the elections of 1987, while 35 percent voted for more leftist parties and 50 percent voted for the conservative parties (figures supplied by Lise Togeby). [BACK]

3. Levnadsförhållanden (Stockholm: Central Statistical Bureau, 1987), 281-83. [BACK]

4. Myrdal's "birth strike" is cited in Gösta Rehn, "The Wages of Success," in Graubard, Norden, 159. On the future, see Magne Raundalen and Ole Johan Finnøy, "Barn og unges syn på framtiden," Barn 4, no. 1 (1984): 8-26, which reported that of a sample of Norwegian children between twelve and eighteen years old, 75 percent were pessimistic about the world in which they would live as adults.

Youth unemployment is far more of a problem in Denmark than in the other Scandinavian countries; for background, see Lise Togeby, Ung og arbejdsløs (Århus: Politica, 1982). In Sweden, youth unemployment rose rapidly in the early 1980s but since then has dropped substantially; see Eksil Wadensjö, The Youth Labor Market in Sweden (Stockholm: Institute for Social Research, 1987), 99.

On drugs, see Oddvar Arner, Mona Duckert, and Ragnar Hauge, Ungdom og narkotika (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1980). On crime, see Kjersti Ericson, Geir Lundby, and Monika Rudberg, Mors nest beste barn (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1985) for Norway; and Berlingske tidende, 16 October 1987, 1, for Denmark.

For background on the "youth revolt," see, e.g., Erling Bjurstrøm, Generasjonsopprøret (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1982); and Carsten Jensen, ed., BZ Europa (Copenhagen: Tiderne Skifter, 1982). [BACK]

5. Ivar Frønes, Generasjoner, solidaritet, og fordeling (Oslo: Institute for Applied Social Research, 1985), 29; and Inger Koch-Nielsen, "Fremtidens familiemønstre," in Noeste * generation, ed. Inger Koch-Nielsen, Birthe Kyng, Laurits Lauritsen, Bente Ørum, and Ebbe Kløvedal Reich (Copenhagen: Aschehoug, 1985), 42. [BACK]

6. Ivar Frønes, "Generasjoner og livsløp," in Det norske samfunn, ed. Lars Alldén, Natalie Rogoff Ramsøy, and Mariken Vaa (Oslo: Gyldendal, 1986), 180. [BACK]

7. Lars Dencik, "Opvækst i postmodernismen," in Børn i nye familie mønstre, ed. Per Schultz Jørgensen (Copenhagen: Hans Reitzels, 1987), 12-45. [BACK]

8. Bengt-Erik Andersson, Home Care or External Care? A Study of the Effects of continue

Public Child Care on Children's Development When Eight Years Old (Stockholm: Swedish Institute of Educational Research, 1986). [BACK]

9. On autonomy, see Erik Sigsgaard, "Om småbørns udvikling af personlig og kollektiv autonomi," in Småbørn, familie, samfund, ed. Charlotte Bøgh and Per Schultz Jørgensen (Copenhagen: Hans Reitzels, 1985), 177-86. On the broader social experience obtainable through day care, see, for Sweden, Karin Edenhammar, Äldersblandade barngrupper (Stockholm: LiberFörlag, 1982); and for Denmark, Jytte Juul Jensen and Ole Langsted, "Aldersintegrerende institutioner," in Bøgh and Schultz Jørgensen, Småbørn, familie, samfund, 187-97. [BACK]

10. On personnel turnover, see Paul Pedersen and Reidnar J. Pettersen, "Virkninger av personalgjennomtrekk i barnehage," Nordisk pedagogisk tidsskrift 69, no. 2 (1985): 102-11. On lack of quality time with the family, see Oddbjørn Evanshaug and Dag Hallen, "Pedagogisk ansvars-fordeling: Mor-far-barnehagen," Nordisk pedagogisk tidsskrift 69, no. 2 (1985): 84-91; Mogens Nygaard Christoffersen, Ole Bertelsen, and Poul Vestergaard, Hvem passer vore børn? (Copenhagen: Danish Social Research Institute, 1987), 110-15; and Ole Langsted and Dion Sommer, Småbørns livsvilkår i Danmark (Copenhagen: Hans Reitzels, 1988), 93-95. [BACK]

11. Ivar Frønes, Jevnaldermiljø, sosialisering, og lokalsamfunn (Oslo: Institute for Social Research, 1987); and Christoffersen, Bertelsen, and Vestergaard, Hvem passer vore børn? 129-35. Langsted and Sommer, Småbørns livsvilkår, 107, cite research which shows that more than half of Danish parents feel their children do not have enough playmates. [BACK]

12. The findings on infants in a new environment are summarized in Andersson, Home Care or External Care, 2-3. For more on aggressiveness, see the discussion in Birthe Kyng, "Børns personlighedsudvikling: Et fremtidsperspektiv," in Koch-Neilsen, et al., Noeste * generation, 73-74. [BACK]

13. Kyng, "Børns personlighedsudvikling," 73. [BACK]

14. Børnekommissionens betoenkning * (Copenhagen: Commission on Children, 1981), 103. [BACK]

15. Lis Bjørnø, Vagn Dalgård, and Bente Madsen, Børnekommissionens betoenkning: Den nye børnekarakter og skolepsykologi, School Psychology Monograph Series, no. 21 (Copenhagen, 1982), 16. For a somewhat similar point of view, see Margot Jørgensen and Peter Schreiner, Fighterrelationen (Copenhagen: Hans Reitzels, 1985). [BACK]

16. Kyng, "Børns personlighedsudvikling," 73. [BACK]

17. Søren Surland, Har børnene taget magten from os? (Copenhagen: Aschehoug, 1988). [BACK]

18. Helga Maria Hernes, Welfare State and Woman Power (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1987), 15-16. [BACK]

19. Svein Olav Daatland and Gerdt Sundström, Gammal i Norden (Stockholm: Initiatives for Service and Housing Sectors for the Elderly Project, 1985), 25. [BACK]

20. Gerdt Sundström, "Family and State: Recent Trends in the Care of the Aged in Sweden," Aging and Society 6 (June 1986): 172. break [BACK]

21. Tor Inge Romøren, "Midlertidig sykehjemsopphold blant eldre," Tidsskrift for samfunnsforskning 26, no. 1/2 (1985): 177-99. [BACK]

22. Kari Wærness, "A Feminist Perspective on the New Ideology of 'Community Care' for the Elderly," Acta Sociologica 30, no. 2 (1987): 133-50. For a basically similar Swedish view, see Ritva Gough, Hemhjälp til gamla (Stockholm: Center for Working Life, 1987). [BACK]

23. This is one of the main themes of Martin Bulmer, The Social Basis of Community Care (London: Allen and Unwin, 1987), dealing primarily with the British context. [BACK]

24. As far as the improvement in the situation of the elderly is concerned, a study of Danes born 1906-1910 indicated that between 1976 and 1986, both their housing situation and their feeling of social connectedness improved (Erik Jørgen Hansen, Generationer og livsforløb i Danmark [Copenhagen: Hans Reitzels, 1988], 172). [BACK]

25. Inger Hilde Nordhus, "Begrepet omsorgsbyrde," Tidsskrift for samfunnsforskning 27, no. 4 (1986): 304. [BACK]

26. A study of two neighborhoods in Oslo, for example, indicated that (at least in one of them) women in full-time work generally were less available to help their parents; see Susan Lingsom, I eget hjem med andres hjelp (Oslo: Institute for Social Research, 1987), 93. [BACK]

27. Sundström, "Family and State," 173. [BACK]

28. For the American case, see Chapter 2, and Andrew Cherlin and Frank Furstenberg, The New American Grandparent: A Place in the Family, a Life Apart (New York: Basic Books, 1986). The notion of "intimacy at a distance" comes from Leopold Rosenmayr and Eva Køckeis, "Propositions for a Sociological Theory of Aging and the Family," International Social Science Journal 15, no. 3 (1963): 410-26. [BACK]

29. Sundström, "Family and State," 176. [BACK]

30. Bent Rold Andersen, "Creating Coherent Public Policy for the Elderly in a Welfare State," in Two Essays on the Nordic Welfare State (Copenhagen: Local Government Research Institute on Public Finance and Administration, 1983), 65. [BACK]

31. For a discussion of the strains involved in caring for the elderly, see Nordhus, "Begrepet omsorgsbyrde." [BACK]

32. Susan Lingsom, "Omsorg for ektefellen," Tidsskrift for samfunnsforskning 25, no. 3 (1984): 245-68. [BACK]

33. See Svein Olav Daatland, "Eldreomsorg i en småby," Tidsskrift for samfunnsforskning 24, no. 2 (1983): 155-73. [BACK]

34. Vernon L. Bengston and J.A. Kuypers, "Psycho-Social Issues in the Aging Family" (Paper presented at the Twelfth International Congress of Gerontology, Hamburg, 1981); cited in Svein Olav Daatland, "Care Systems," Aging and Society 3 (March 1983): 13. [BACK]

35. For research that demonstrates the importance of informal care for the continue

elderly, see Warren A. Peterson and Jill Quadagno, eds., Social Bonds in Later Life: Aging and Interdependence (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1985). [BACK]

36. See, e.g., Charlotte Nusberg, Mary Jo Greson, and Sheila Peace, Innovative Aging Programs Abroad: Implications for the United States (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1984), esp. 130-31. [BACK]

37. Sundström, "Family and State," 176. [BACK]

38. Tine Eiby, "Da børnene vandt over de gamle," Weekendavisen, 8-14 April 1988, 1. In previous years pensions in Scandinavia tended to be better funded than day-care centers; this change can therefore be viewed as a historic correction. [BACK]

39. Susan Lingsom, "Fragmeneter i sampsill," in Gammel i eget hjem, ed. Svein Olav Daatland (Copenhagen: Nordic Council, 1987), 200. [BACK]

40. Gunhild Hammarström, Solidaritetsmönster mellan generationer (Uppsala: The Elderly in Society Before, Now, and in the Future Project, 1986), 86-90, 205-29. [BACK]

41. Merete Platz, Loengst * muligt i eget hjem  . . . (Copenhagen: Danish Social Research Institute, 1987), 92-97. [BACK]

42. Lise Widding Isaksen, "Om krenking av den personlige bluferdighet," Tidsskrift for samfunnsforskning 28, no. 1 (1987): 33-46. [BACK]

43. Erik Jørgen Hansen, Generationer og livsforløb, 172, shows that between 1976 and 1986 the number of elderly Danes who missed having strong friendships decreased slightly, but for those non-working-class elderly without children the feeling of missing friends nearly doubled. [BACK]

44. Wærness, "A Feminist Perspective," 146. For American data, see Gunhild O. Hagestad, "Problems and Promises in the Social Psychology of Intergenerational Relations," in Aging, ed. Robert Fogel et al. (New York: Academic Press, 1981), 11-46. [BACK]

45. Bent Rold Andersen, "Creating Coherent Public Policy," 65. [BACK]

46. Richard Titmuss, The Gift Relationship: From Human Blood to Social Policy (New York: Pantheon Books, 1971). [BACK]

47. Merete Watt Boolsen, Frivillige i socialt arbejde (Copenhagen: Danish Social Research Institute, 1988), 19. [BACK]

48. Mirdza Brivkalne, "Fritid," in Perspektiv på välfärden 1987 (Stockholm: Central Statistical Bureau, 1987), 257. [BACK]

49. Michael Tåhlin, Fritid i välfärden (Stockholm: Riksförbundet Sveriges Fritids-och Hemgårder, 1985), 55-78. [BACK]

50. Peter Winai, Gränsorganisationer (Stockholm: Finance Department, 1987), and Winai, Organisationer på gränsen mellan privat och offentlig sektor (Stockholm: Finance Department, 1985). [BACK]

51. See the following studies by Håkon Lorentzen, all published in 1987 by the Institute for Applied Social Research, Oslo: Frivillig sosialt arbeid i organisasjoner for syke, handicappede, og funksjonshemmede; Frivillige sosiale ytelser i menighetenes regi; and Frivillig sosialt arbeid og ytelser i noen humanitoere * organisasjoner. break [BACK]

52. The report of the examination of voluntary organizations is Ulla Habermann and Ingrid Parsby, Myter og realiteter i det frivillige sociale arbejde (Copenhagen: Danish Social Ministry, 1987); see also Kirsten Just Jeppesen and Dorte Høeg, Private hjoelpeorganisationer * på det sociale område (Copenhagen: Danish Social Research Institute, 1987). On the "third network" and its role, see Ulla Habermann, Det tredje netvoerk * (Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag, 1987); and Kurt Klaudi Klausen, "Organisationer mellem stat og marked" (Photocopy). [BACK]

53. Such a pregnancy was the subject of one of the most famous twentieth-century Danish novels, Martin Andersen Nexø's Ditte Menneskebarn (Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1963; first published in 1917-21). [BACK]

54. As in the United States, women in Scandinavia have played a leading role in the voluntary sector. See Hernes, Welfare State and Woman Power, 56-61. [BACK]

55. Vera Skalts and Magna Nørgaard, Mødrehjoelpens * epoke (Copenhagen: Rhodos, n.d.), 22-30, 49, 57-79. [BACK]

56. Victor Pürschel; cited in ibid., 29. [BACK]

57. Dansk Mødrehjælpen af 1983, Årsberetning 1986. [BACK]

58. Anne Køppe, Evaluering af Mødrehjoelpen af 1983 (Copenhagen: Institute for Social Medicine, 1987). [BACK]

59. Ralph Kramer, Voluntary Agencies in the Welfare State (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1981), emphasizes how private organizations receive state support, especially in Holland, in contrast to the American pattern. Scandinavian societies represent yet another alternative, where private organizations, as in Holland, receive government funds but, unlike in Holland, are not extensively relied upon. [BACK]

60. Danmarks Frivillige Bloddonorer, Festskrift 1932-1982, 6-7. [BACK]

61. Axel Hadenius, A Crisis of the Welfare State? (Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell, 1986), 23. For a comparison of Denmark, Sweden, and three other countries, see Douglas A. Hibbs, Jr., and Henrik Jess Madsen, "Public Reactions to the Growth of Taxation and Government Expenditure," World Politics 33 (April 1981): 413-35. [BACK]

62. Recent figures are contained in Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Revenue Statistics of Member Countries (Paris: OECD, 1986), 83. In the late 1980s, Denmark may pass Sweden and become first in the world in taxation, in part because of tax reform in Sweden and in part because a conservative government in Denmark has chosen not to cut back welfare state activities aggressively. [BACK]

63. Gunnar Heckscher, The Welfare State and Beyond: Success and Problems in Scandinavia (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), 106. For a different point of view, see Stein Ringen, The Possibility of Politics: A Study in the Political Economy of the Welfare State (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987), 68. [BACK]

64. Einar Øverbye, Skatteprogresjon og skattereduserende strategier (Oslo: Institute for Applied Social Research, 1984), 123, 137. break [BACK]

65. Einar Øverbye, Den skjulte inntekten (Oslo: Institute for Applied Social Research, 1985), 84. [BACK]

66. Ibid., 90. Øverbye (p. 89) does point out that his data are not good enough to establish a life-cycle or generational effect in tax obligations. Young Swedes were also found to be more likely to indicate dissatisfaction with tax rates; see Hadenius, Crisis of the Welfare State? 38. [BACK]

67. Joachim Vogel, Aspirationer, möjligheter, och skattemoral (Stockholm: Government Official Reports, 1970), 145; the 1980-81 data are in Hadenius, Crisis of the Welfare State? 35. [BACK]

68. Øverbye, Den skjulte inntekten, 85. [BACK]

69. Although Americans are thought of as individualistic and Scandinavians as collectivistic, it is my experience that pure rational-choice models of action tend to apply, particularly with regard to the behavior of organizations, better in Scandinavia than in the United States. On cultural rather than economic issues--such as smoking in public or driving without respect for others--Danes engage in "self-interested" behavior to a far greater degree than Americans. [BACK]

70. Vogel, Aspirationer, 73, 147. [BACK]

71. Pekka Kosonen, "From Collectivity to Individualism in the Welfare State?" Acta Sociologica 30, no. 3/4 (1987): 281-93. [BACK]

72. Gunnar Viby Mogensen, Sort arbejde i Danmark (Viborg, Den.: Arnold Busck, 1985), 32. [BACK]

73. Edgar L. Feige, "Sweden's Underground Economy," Industrial Institute for Economic and Social Research, Working Paper no. 161 (Stockholm, 1986), 16. [BACK]

74. Arne Jon Isachsen, Jan Tore Klovland, and Steinar Strøm, "The Hidden Economy in Norway," in The Underground Economy in the United States and Abroad, ed. Vito Tanzi (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1982), 209-32; and Arne Isachsen and Steiner Strøm, "The Size and Growth of the Hidden Economy in Norway," Review of Income and Wealth 31 (March 1985): 21-38. [BACK]

75. For an application of this approach to Scandinavia, see Friedrich Schneider and Jens Lundager, "The Development of the Shadow Economies for Denmark, Norway, and Sweden" (Institute for Economics, Århus University, 1986), which shows increases over time for all three countries, the largest shadow economy being in Sweden. [BACK]

76. See B. S. Frey and Hannelore Weck, "Estimating the Shadow Economy," Oxford Economic Papers 35 (March 1983): 23-44. [BACK]

77. Mogensen, Sort arbejde, 71. [BACK]

78. See Jens Bonke, Formelt og informelt byggeri (Copenhagen: Government Institute for Construction Research, 1986). [BACK]

79. Mogensen, Sort arbejde, 65-76. [BACK]

80. Ibid., 76-87. [BACK]

81. Hans Magnus Enzensberger, Svensk höst (Stockholm: Dagens Nyheter, continue

1982), 17. Enzensberger also visited Norway, the results of which trip were published as Norsk utakt (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1984). [BACK]

82. The most conspicuous conservative critic is Roland Huntford; see his The New Totalitarians (London: Allen Lane, 1972). Danes, who are of a more liberal bent than Swedes, also marvel at the Swedish state; one, using Enzensberger's own formulation, has written that the Swedish state has "a kind of moral immunity that no other society has" (Mogens Behrendt, Tilfoeldet * Sverige [Copenhagen: Erichsen, 1983], 21). For a Norwegian effort to understand Sweden, see Lars Hellberg, Det nye Sverige (Oslo: Cappalens, 1981). [BACK]

83. A point made by Gösta Rehn in Towards a Society of Free Choice, Stockholm: Institute for Social Research, 1978. [BACK]

84. The most poetic account of Grundtvig's life and accomplishments is Ebbe Kløvedal Reich, Frederik (Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1981). For a collection of Grundtvig's writings in English, see A Grundtvig Anthology, ed. Niels Lynhe Jensen (Cambridge: James Clarke, 1984). [BACK]

85. Arne Ruth, "The Second New Nation: The Mythology of Modern Sweden," in Graubard, Norden, 279. [BACK]

86. Olof Holm, Kooperation i ofärd och välfärd (Stockholm: Department of Education, University of Stockholm, 1984). [BACK]

87. Hilding Johansson, Folkrörelserna i Sverige (Stockholm: Sober, 1980); and Sven Lundqvist, Folkrörelserna i det svenska samhället 1850-1920 (Stockholm: Sober, 1977). [BACK]

88. Quoted in Heckscher, The Welfare State and Beyond, 45. [BACK]

89. The best history of the early Norwegian welfare state is Anna-Lise Seip, Socialhjelpstaten blir til (Oslo: Gyldendal, 1984). [BACK]

90. Bo Rothstein, "Managing the Welfare State: Lessons from Gustav Möller," in Voelfoerdsstaten * i krise, ed. Ann-Dorte Christiansen, Erik Christiansen, Karin Hansen, Morten Lassen, and Børge Rasmussen (Ålborg: Center for Welfare State Studies, 1986), 2:225-58. [BACK]

91. Ruth, "Second New Nation," 273. [BACK]

92. The relevance of the Grundtvigian moral vision is a constant theme of discussion in Danish cultural life. See Ejvind Larsen, Det levende ord (Copenhagen: Rosinante, 1983); and Henrik S. Nissen, ed., Efter Grundtvig (Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1983). [BACK]

93. Holm, Kooperation, 128-72, 183-98. [BACK]

94. Bo Rothstein, Den socialdemokratiska staten, Dissertation Series, no. 21 (Lund, 1986), 161-96. [BACK]

95. Ruth, "Second New Nation," 278-79. [BACK]

96. Bent Rold Andersen, "Rationality and Irrationality of the Nordic Welfare State," in Graubard, Norden, 132. [BACK]

97. Heckscher, The Welfare State and Beyond, 160. break [BACK]

98. Michael Walzer, ''Socialism and the Gift Relationship," Dissent 29 (Fall 1982): 432. [BACK]

99. Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 94. [BACK]

100. Ulrich K. Preuss, "The Concept of Rights and the Welfare State," in Dilemmas of Law in the Welfare State, ed. Gunther Teubner (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1986), 156, 160. [BACK]

101. Gösta Esping-Andersen and Walter Korpi, "From Poor Relief to Institutional Welfare States," in The Scandinavian Model: Welfare States and Welfare Research, ed. Robert Erikson et al. (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1986), 53. [BACK]

1. One who does insist on including the realm of the social within discussions of political economy is Philippe Schmitter, "Neo-Corporatism and the State," in The Political Economy of Corporatism, ed. Wyn Grant (New York: St. Martins Press, 1985), 32-62, esp. p. 52. [BACK]

2. Charles Lindblom, Politics and Markets: The World's Political Economic Systems (New York: Basic Books, 1977); and Gösta Esping-Andersen, Politics Against Markets: The Social Democratic Road to Power (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1985). [BACK]

3. See Albert O. Hirschman, Exit, Voice, and Loyalty: Responses to Decline in Firms, Organizations, and States (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970); and Hirschman, "Exit and Voice: Some Further Distinctions," in Essays in Trespassing: Economics to Politics and Beyond (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 236-45. [BACK]

4. Albert O. Hirschman, Shifting Involvements: Private Interest and Public Action (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982). [BACK]

5. Anthony Giddens, The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984), 281-84. [BACK]

6. See Gary Becker, The Economic Approach to Human Behavior (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), 5. [BACK]

7. See Jon Elster, Making Sense of Marx (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985). [BACK]

8. Emile Durkheim, The Division of Labor in Society (New York: Free Press, 1964), 28. [BACK]

9. Emile Durkheim, Moral Education (New York: Free Press, 1973), 43, 54. [BACK]

10. Emile Durkheim, Suicide (New York: Free Press, 1966), 248. [BACK]

11. Ferdinand Tönnies, Community and Association, trans. Charles P. Loomis (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1974), 261. [BACK]

12. The best of these antimodern moralists is, in this writer's opinion, Alasdair continue

MacIntyre; see his After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory (South Bend, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981). [BACK]

13. Brigitte Berger and Peter L. Berger, The War over the Family: Capturing the Middle Ground (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1983), 141, 154. [BACK]

14. For an exploration of this theme, see Stephen P. Turner and Mark L. Wardell, eds., Sociological Theory in Transition (Boston: Allen and Unwin, 1986). [BACK]

15. Peter M. Blau, Exchange and Power in Social Life (New York: John Wiley, 1964). [BACK]

16. Two books that deal with that approach more generally, including the work of George Homans (whom I have not discussed) are Anthony Heath, Rational Choice and Social Exchange (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976); and Peter Ekeh, Social Exchange Theory: The Two Traditions (London: Heinemann, 1974). [BACK]

17. Blau, Exchange and Power, 62. [BACK]

18. Ibid., 92; see also 93-97. [BACK]

19. Ibid., 259. [BACK]

20. Ibid., 92, 260. [BACK]

21. Ibid., 92; see Alvin W. Gouldner, "The Norm of Reciprocity," American Sociological Review 25 (April, 1960): 161-78. [BACK]

22. Blau, Exchange and Power, 62. [BACK]

23. See ibid., 97. [BACK]

24. Ibid., 70-71. [BACK]

25. Morris Janowitz, The Reconstruction of Patriotism: Education for Civic Consciousness (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), xi, 2. [BACK]

26. See Morris Janowitz, "Sociological Theory and Social Control," American Journal of Sociology 81 (July 1975): 82-108. In this article Janowitz argues that the concept of social control developed in direct opposition to theories of economic man, as an effort "to identify the limitations of marginal--utility analysis" (p. 84). [BACK]

27. Morris Janowitz, The Last Half Century: Societal Change and Politics in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), 235. Despite his distaste for Chicago school models of rational choice, Janowitz concludes, contrary to my own arguments in Chapter 1 of this book, that "the emergence of economic analysis of crime by Gary Becker . . . supplies not a substitute but rather a continuity with traditional sociological observations" (pp. 372-73). [BACK]

28. The last two of these points are elaborated more fully in The Reconstruction of Patriotism than in The Last Half Century . [BACK]

29. Morris Janowitz, Social Control of the Welfare State (New York: Elsevier, 1976), 107-8. [BACK]

30. "There is one association that among all others enjoys a genuine preeminence and that represents the end, par excellence, of moral conduct. This is political society, i.e., the nation--but the nation conceived of as a partial embodiment of the idea of humanity" (Durkheim, Moral Education, 80). break [BACK]

31. Janowitz, The Last Half Century, 370, 368, 14. [BACK]

32. Janowitz, Reconstruction of Patriotism, 14, 194. [BACK]

33. Ibid., xi. Janowitz's identification of himself as a social democrat is in Social Control of the Welfare State, xvi. [BACK]

34. Janowitz, Reconstruction of Patriotism, 99, 105, 106, 111, 138. [BACK]

35. The notion that Parsons was a moralist is, of course, at the heart of Alvin Gouldner's critique of his work; see his The Coming Crisis of Western Sociology (New York: Basic Books, 1970), esp. 140-41, 144-48, 178-95, and 254-57. [BACK]

36. Talcott Parsons, The Social System (New York: Free Press, 1964), 540. [BACK]

37. Ibid., 14. [BACK]

38. Ibid., 429. [BACK]

39. Ibid., 464. [BACK]

40. Allan Silver, "'Trust' in Social and Political Theory," in The Challenge of Social Control, ed. Gerald D. Suttles and Mayer N. Zald (Norwood, N.J.: Ablex, 1985), 52. [BACK]

41. Niklas Luhmann has written the best account of trust as a socially binding force: see his Trust and Power (New York: John Wiley, 1979). Other recent works on the sociology of trust include Bernard Barber, The Logic and Limits of Trust (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1983); and J. David Lewis and Andrew Weigert, "Trust as a Social Reality," Social Forces 63 (June 1985): 967-85. [BACK]

42. Parsons, The Social System, 41. [BACK]

43. William Buxton, Talcott Parsons and the Capitalist Nation-State (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1985), 146-64. [BACK]

44. Talcott Parsons, "'Voting' and the Equilibrium of the American Political System," in Politics and Social Structure (New York: Free Press, 1969), 205. [BACK]

45. Talcott Parsons, "The Political Aspect of Social Structure and Process," in Politics and Social Structure, 318. [BACK]

46. See Michael Hechter, Principles of Group Solidarity (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1987); and Michael Taylor, The Possibility of Cooperation, rev. ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987). [BACK]

47. On contemporary structural-functionalism, see Jeffrey Alexander, ed., Neo-Functionalism (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1985). Representative works on the theory of the state include Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979); Charles Tilly, ed., The Development of the State in Western Europe (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1975); and Michael Mann, The Sources of Social Power: A History of Power from the Beginning to A.D. 1760 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). My own contribution to the theory of the state is The Limits of Legitimacy: Political Contractions of Contemporary Capitalism (New York: Free Press, 1977). [BACK]

48. One exception to this generalization is what could be called the "Bellah" school. See, e.g., Richard Madsen, Morality and Power in a Chinese Village (Berke- soft

ley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984); Stephen J. Tipton, Getting Saved from the Sixties: Moral Meaning in Conversion and Cultural Change (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982); and Robert Wuthnow, Meaning and Moral Order: Explorations in Cultural Analysis (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1987). [BACK]

49. Robert K. Merton, Sociological Ambivalence and Other Essays (New York: Free Press, 1976). [BACK]

50. Donald McCloskey, The Rhetoric of Economics (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985). [BACK]

51. Arlie Russell Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1983); and Robert Bellah et al., Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985). [BACK]

52. For the first position, see Robert Nisbet, Emile Durkheim (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965); for the second, Stephen Seidman, Liberalism and the Origins of European Social Theory (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1983); and for the third, Steve Fenton, Durkheim and Modern Social Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985). [BACK]

53. For Lukács's views, see his The Destruction of Reason, trans. Peter Palmer (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1981). [BACK]

1. The essays contained in Jon Elster, ed., The Multiple Self (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), explore this general assumption, but with greater emphasis on self-deception than on the social aspects of the self. See also Thomas Schelling, "Ethics, Law, and the Exercise of Self-Command," in Choice and Consequence: Perspectives of an Errant Economist (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984), 83-112. [BACK]

2. Virginia Held, Rights and Goods: Justifying Social Action (New York: Free Press, 1984), 25. [BACK]

3. Amitai Etzioni, The Moral Dimension: Toward a New Economics (New York: Free Press, 1988), 36-41. [BACK]

4. Harold Garfinkel, Studies in Ethnomethodology (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1967). [BACK]

5. Alfred Schutz, "Phenomenology and the Social Sciences"; cited in Jeffrey Alexander, Twenty Lectures: Sociological Theory Since World War II (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), 250. In his most famous work, Schutz wrote: "I thus presuppose that at any given time we are both referring to the same objects, which transcend the subjective experience of either of us" ( The Phenomenology of the Social World [Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1967], 105). break [BACK]

6. John Heritage, Garfinkel and Ethnomethodology (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1984), 100. [BACK]

7. Eugene Rochberg-Halton, Meaning and Modernity: Social Theory in Pragmatic Attitude (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), 114. [BACK]

8. Ibid., 164. [BACK]

9. Victor Turner, The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structure (Chicago: Aldine, 1969), 127, 129. [BACK]

10. Ibid., 203. [BACK]

11. On political freedom, see Randall Collins, Weberian Sociological Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 261-62. [BACK]

12. Turner, The Ritual Process, 116. [BACK]

13. Rom Harré and Paul Secord, The Explanation of Social Behavior (Totowa, N.J.: Littlefield, Adams, 1972), 13. [BACK]

14. Of the many critiques of sociobiology that have been published, I have found of most help Philip Kitcher, Vaulting Ambition: Sociobiology and the Quest for Human Nature (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1985), esp. 396-434. [BACK]

15. Drew Westen, Self and Society: Narcissism, Collectivism, and the Development of Morals (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 176. [BACK]

16. A recent contribution to the debate on human nautre is Thomas Sowell, A Conflict of Visions: Ideological Origins of Political Struggles (New York: William Morrow, 1987). [BACK]

17. The need to recognize social creatures as living in social institutions, especially in contrast to some theories of rational-choice individualism, is one of Mary Douglas's themes in How Institutions Think (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1986). [BACK]

18. Harré and Secord, Explanation of Social Behavior, 89. [BACK]

19. Erving Goffman, Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates (London: Penguin Books, 1968), 119. [BACK]

20. Kathryn Pyne Addelson, "Moral Passages," in Women and Moral Theory, ed. Eva Kittay and Diane Meyers (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1988), 87-110. [BACK]

21. Besides illustrating the sociological concern with "deviance," Becker is also one who emphasizes "doing things together"; see Howard S. Becker, Doing Things Together: Selected Papers (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1986). [BACK]

22. One recent effort to relate the study of deviance to the reproduction of the moral order in Durkheimian fashion is Nachman Ben-Yehuda's Deviance and Moral Boundaries: Witchcraft, the Occult, Science Fiction, Deviant Sciences, and Scientists (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985). [BACK]

23. George Herbert Mead, Mind, Self, and Society: From the Standpoint of a Social Behavioralist (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), 162. Goffman goes even further: the self, he writes, "is not a property of the person to whom it is attributed, but dwells rather in the pattern of social control that is exercised in connection with the person by himself and those around him" ( Asylums, 154). break [BACK]

24. Niklas Luhmann, Trust and Power (New York: John Wiley, 1979), 63. [BACK]

25. The "exit" option, of course, is the invention of Albert Hirschman; see Exit, Voice, and Loyalty: Responses to Decline in Firms, Organizations, and States (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970). The phrase "concentration of the mind" appears on p. 21. [BACK]

26. Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis, Democracy and Capitalism: Property, Community, and the Contractions of Modern Social Thought (New York: Basic Books, 1986), 127. [BACK]

27. On the immortality of the self, see Raymond L. Schmidt and W. M. Leonard, "Immortalizing the Self Through Sport," American Journal of Sociology 91 (March 1986): 1088-1111. [BACK]

28. Amy Gutmann, "What's The Use of Going to School?" in Utilitarianism and Beyond , ed. Amartya Sen and Bernard Williams (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 261-77. [BACK]

29. On this point, see Harry Frankfurt, "Freedom of the Will and the Concept of a Person," in The Importance of What We Care About: Philosophical Essays (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 11-25. [BACK]

30. Robert E. Lane, "Market Thinking and Political Thinking," in Dilemmas of Liberal Democracies: Studies in Fred Hirsch's "Social Limits to Growth," ed. Adrian Ellis and Krishan Kumar (London: Tavistock, 1983), 140-41. [BACK]

31. I develop these points at greater length in "Inauthentic Democracy," Studies in Political Economy 21 (Autumn 1986): 57-81. [BACK]

32. Robert Bellah et al., Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985). [BACK]

33. Bowles and Gintis, Democracy and Capitalism, 124-27. [BACK]

34. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Vintage Books, 1979). [BACK]

35. Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory (South Bend, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981), 175. [BACK]

36. Mitchell Aboulafia, The Mediating Self: Mead, Sartre, and Self-Determination (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1986), 73-101. [BACK]

37. Emile Durkheim, Moral Education (New York: Free Press, 1973), 11, 34, 42. [BACK]

38. Emile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (New York: Free Press, 1965), 492, 495. [BACK]

39. Emile Durkheim, "Pragmatism and Sociology," in Kurt H. Wolff, ed., Essays on Sociology and Philosophy (New York: Harper and Row, 1964), 433; cited in Derek L. Phillips, Toward a Just Social Order (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986), 22. [BACK]

40. Phillips, Toward a Just Social Order, 51. [BACK]

41. Freud, of course, was certainly a moral thinker; see Philip Rieff, Freud: The Mind of a Moralist, 3d ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979). On more recent work, see Jean Piaget, The Moral Judgement of the Child (New York: Free continue

Press, 1965); Lawrence Kohlberg, The Philosophy of Moral Development (New York: Harper and Row, 1983); Elliot Turiel, The Development of Social Knowledge: Morality and Convention (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); and Leonard W. Doob, Slightly Beyond Skepticism: Social Science and the Search for Morality (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1987). Criticisms of the Kolhbergian approach can be found in Carol Gilligan, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982); and Norma Haan, Elaine Aerts, and Bruce A. B. Cooper, On Moral Grounds: The Search for Practical Morality (New York: New York University Press, 1985). [BACK]

42. See Ervin Staub et al., Development and Maintenance of Prosocial Behavior (New York: Plenum, 1984); J. P. Rushton, Altruism, Socialization, and Society (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1980); Melvin J. Lerner and Sally C. Lerner, The Justice Motive in Social Behavior: Adapting to Times of Scarcity and Change (New York: Plenum, 1981); and Morton Deutsch, Distributive Justice: A Social-psychological Perspective (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1985). [BACK]

43. The economists include Kenneth J. Arrow, Social Choice and Individual Values (New York: John Wiley, 1963); William J. Baumol, Welfare Economics and the Theory of the State , 2d ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965); and Amartya K. Sen, Collective Choice and Social Welfare (San Francisco: Holden Day, 1970). On utilitarianism, see R. M. Hare, Moral Thinking: Its Levels, Methods, and Point (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981); on rational-choice theory, David P. Gauthier, Morals by Agreement (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), and John C. Harsanyi, "Morality and the Theory of Rational Behavior," in Sen and Williams, Utilitarianism and Beyond, 39-62; and on state-of-nature assumptions, Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (New York: Basic Books, 1974). [BACK]

44. It is an obvious oversimplification to posit a dichotomy between philosophical and sociological approaches to morality. Although Jürgen Habermas, for example, accepts the notion of universally valid truth claims (see below), many philosophers have quite a bit in common with sociologists. See, e.g., Maria Ossowska, Social Determinants of Moral Ideas (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1970); Nel Noddings, Caring: A Feminist Approach to Ethics and Moral Education (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984); and Nicholas Rescher, Unselfishness: The Role of Vicarious Affects in Moral Philosophy and Social Theory (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1975). [BACK]

45. James S. Fishkin, Beyond Subjective Morality: Ethical Reasoning and Political Philosophy (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1984). [BACK]

46. Allan Gewirth, Reason and Morality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), 24. [BACK]

47. See Kohlberg's "The Future of Liberalism as the Dominant Ideology of the West," in Moral Development and Politics, ed. Richard W. Wilson and Gordon J. Schochet (New York: Praeger, 1980), 64. [BACK]

48. Gauthier, Morals by Agreement, 269. For an opposing point of view, defend- soft

ing "intuition over arguments," see Thomas Nagel, Mortal Questions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), x. [BACK]

49. This point is stressed by Charles Taylor in Philosophical Papers, vol. 2: Philosophy and the Human Sciences (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 211-47. [BACK]

50. On having children, see Onora O'Neill and William Ruddick, Having Children: Philosophical and Legal Reflections on Parenthood (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979); on abortion, see L. W. Sumner, Abortion and Moral Theory (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981); and on death, see Nagel, Mortal Questions, 1-10. Peter Singer, ed., Applied Ethics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), contains a succinct essay on Singer's defense of animal rights, plus other articles on controversial topics such as overpopulation. On nuclear weapons, the environment, and world hunger, see Anthony Kenny, The Logic of Deterrence (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985); Paul W. Taylor, Respect for Nature: A Theory of Environmental Ethics (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986); William W. Aiken and Hugh LaFollette, eds., World Hunger and Moral Obligation (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1977); and Onora O'Neill, Faces of Hunger: An Essay on Poverty, Justice, and Development (London: Allen and Unwin, 1986). [BACK]

51. Phillips, Toward a Just Social Order, 175. [BACK]

52. Discussion of the ambiguity of language is particularly evident in the work of social psychologists influenced by Wittgenstein, such as Rom Harré and Paul Secord, The Explanation of Social Behavior . On the nature of real experience, see Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1979); on how humans make moral judgments, see Charles E. Larmore, Patterns of Moral Complexity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); and, on the human manufacture of symbolic worlds, see Kathryn Pyne Addelson, "Why Philosophers Must Become Sociologists" (Photocopy). [BACK]

53. Joseph Raz, The Morality of Freedom (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), 309. [BACK]

54. Geoffrey Brennan and James Buchanan, The Reason of Rules: Constitutional Political Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 105. [BACK]

55. F. A. Hayek, Rules and Order, vol. 1: Law, Liberty, and Legislation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973), 36, 44 (quotes); on the last point, see, e.g., p. 18. [BACK]

56. Lon L. Fuller, The Morality of Law, rev. ed. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1964), 178, 5, 9, 17. [BACK]

57. Tom R. Burns and Helena Flam, The Shaping of Social Organization: Social Rule System Theory with Application (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1987), 12. [BACK]

58. Brennan and Buchanan, The Reason of Rules, 109. [BACK]

59. See Wayne E. Baker, "The Social Structure of a National Securities Market," American Journal of Sociology 89 (January 1984): 775-811; and Wayne E. Baker, "Floor Trading and Crowd Dynamics," in The Social Dynamics of Financial Markets, ed. Patricia A. Adler and Peter Adler (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1984), 107-28. [BACK]

60. Clifford Geertz, Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 73-120. break [BACK]

61. For an argument of how judges interpret legal rules sociologically, see Gordon L. Clark, Judges and the Cities: Interpreting Local Autonomy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985). [BACK]

62. Duncan Kennedy, "Form and Substance in Private Law Adjudication," Harvard Law Review 89 (June 1976): 1685-1778. Whether rules are primarily associated with egoistic theories of self-interest, and standards with theories of altruism and cooperation, is not as important in this context as the fact that all rules presume standards and all standards presume rules. [BACK]

63. Brennan and Buchanan, The Reason of Rules, 7. [BACK]

64. Lon L. Fuller, "Two Principles of Human Association," in The Principles of Social Order: Selected Essays of Lon L. Fuller, ed. Kenneth I. Winston (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1981), 67-85, quote p. 71. [BACK]

65. For a general discussion, see John P. Burke, Bureaucratic Responsibility (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986). [BACK]

66. Fuller, The Morality of Law, 153. [BACK]

67. Lawrence Kohlberg, "From Is to Ought," in Cognitive Development and Epistemology, ed. Theodore Mischel (New York: Academic Press, 1971), 215. [BACK]

68. See William N. Nelson, On Justifying Democracy (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1980). [BACK]

69. For an effort to develop a moral theory around the idea that we must recognize ambiguity, not only in the language we use to express moral ideals, but even in the ideals themselves, see Burton Zweibach, The Common Life: Ambiguity, Agreement, and the Structure of Morals (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988). [BACK]

70. On the "traditional model" of administrative law, see Richard B. Stewart, "The Reformation of American Administrative Law," Harvard Law Review 88 (June 1975): 1667-1813, esp. p. 1676. [BACK]

71. Ronald Dworkin, Law's Empire (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986), 85. [BACK]

72. Jürgen Habermas, Theory of Communicative Action, vol. 1: Reason and the Rationality of Society, trans. Thomas McCarthy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1984). For a critique of Habermas along similar lines to mine, see Iris Marion Young, "Impartiality and the Civic Public" in Feminism as Critique: On the Politics of Gender, ed. Seyla Benhabib and Drucilla Cornell (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987), 57-76. [BACK]

73. Kristin Luker, Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984); and Jonathan Rieder, Canarsie: The Jews and Italians of Brooklyn Against Liberalism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1985). [BACK]

1. Claus Offe, "Competitive Party Democracy and the Welfare State," Policy Sciences 15 (June 1983): 225-46. break [BACK]

2. I borrow this term from Helen Weinreich-Haste and Don Locke, eds., Morality in the Making: Thought, Action, and the Social Context (New York: John Wiley, 1983). [BACK]

3. L. W. Sumner, Abortion and Moral Theory (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981), 15. [BACK]

4. Baruch Brody, Abortion and the Sanctity of Human Life (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1975), 116. For the curious, the one exception Brody admits is as follows: "It is permissible to take B's life to save A's life if B is going to die anyway in a relatively short time, taking B's life is the only way of saving A's life, and either (1) taking A's life (or doing anything else) will not save B's life or (2) taking A's life (or doing anything else) will save B's life, but one has, by some fair random method, determined to save A's life rather than B's life" (p. 23). [BACK]

5. John T. Noonan, "An Almost Absolute Value in History," in The Morality of Abortion: Legal and Historical Perspectives, ed. John T. Noonan (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970), 53. [BACK]

6. Emile Durkheim, "The Dualism of Human Nature and Its Social Conditions," in Emile Durkheim on Morality and Society, ed. Robert Bellah (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973), 152. [BACK]

7. The relationship between the principle of a woman's right to control her own body and the political theory of "possessive individualism" is explored in Jean Bethke Elshtain, "Reflections on Abortion, Values, and the Family," in Abortion: Understanding Differences, ed. Sidney Callahan and Daniel Callahan (New York: Plenum, 1984), 53-54. [BACK]

8. Sumner, Abortion and Moral Theory, 34, 38. [BACK]

9. Judith G. Smetana, Concepts of Self and Morality: Women's Reasoning About Abortion (New York: Praeger, 1982). [BACK]

10. Arthur B. Shostak and Gary McLouth, Men and Abortion: Lessons, Losses, and Love (New York: Praeger, 1984), 17. [BACK]

11. Mary K. Zimmerman, Passage Through Abortion: The Personal and Social Reality of Women's Experience (New York: Praeger, 1977), 126. [BACK]

12. See Carole Joffe, The Regulation of Sexuality: Experiences of Family Planning Workers (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), for a discussion of the experiences of such workers. [BACK]

13. Jonathan B. Imber, Abortion and the Private Practice of Medicine (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1986), 119. [BACK]

14. Kristin Luker, Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984). [BACK]

15. For a comprehensive history of the 1974 Swedish decision to liberalize its abortion laws, see Stefan Swärd, Varför Sverige fick fri abort (Stockholm: Political Science Department, Stockholm University, 1984). [BACK]

16. For a study of the experiences of more than a hundred Swedish women who had abortions, see Anne-Christine Trost, Abort och psykiska besvär (Västerås, Swe.: International Library, 1982). break [BACK]

17. Joffe, The Regulation of Sexuality, 161. [BACK]

18. Johan Goudsblom, ''Public Health and the Civilizing Process," Milbank Quarterly 64, no. 2 (1986): 161-88. [BACK]

19. For information on the Swedish approach to AIDS, I have relied on Benny Henriksson, AIDS: Föreställingar om en verklighet (Stockholm: Glacio, 1987), 55-61. "AIDS i Norden," Nordisk Kontakt 32, no. 8 (1987): 6-13, gives an overview of the treatment of AIDS in all the Nordic countries. [BACK]

20. International Herald Tribune, 20 November 1987, 5. [BACK]

21. Ibid., 26 November 1987, 6. [BACK]

22. The Danish approach to AIDS is described in Vagn Greve and Annika Snare, AIDS: Nogle retspolitiske spørgsmål (Copenhangen: Institute of Criminology, 1987). [BACK]

23. Randy Shilts, And the Band Played On: Politics, People, and the AIDS Epidemic (New York: St. Martins Press, 1987), 565-66. [BACK]

24. For a similar conclusion, see Ronald Bayer, Private Acts, Social Consequences: AIDS and the Politics of Public Health (New York: Free Press, 1989). [BACK]

25. The kinds of moral dilemmas posed by advances in medical technology are discussed in Ruth Macklin, Mortal Choices: Bioethics in Today's World (New York: Pantheon Books, 1987). [BACK]

26. For a different conclusion, emphasizing that the morality of integrated schools ought to be chosen over the morality of a community's wishes, see Jennifer Hochschild, The New American Dilemma: Liberal Democracy and School Desegregation (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1984). That participants in Boston's school wars, on all sides, did experience moments of moral passage is shown by J. Anthony Lukas, Common Ground: A Turbulent Decade in the Lives of Three American Families (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1985). [BACK]

27. Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 50. [BACK]

28. See Göran Therborn, "Den svenska väfärdsstatens särart och framtid," in Lycksalighetens halvö (Stockholm: Institute for Future Studies, 1987), 13-44. [BACK]

29. A Danish study of attitudes toward immigrants and refugees found great polarization of opinion: those who were hostile tended to become more hostile, while those who were accepting tended to become more accepting. See Eszter Körmendi, Os og de andre (Copenhagen: Danish Social Research Institute, 1986). [BACK]

30. Gunnar Heckscher, The Welfare State and Beyond: Success and Problems in Scandinavia (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), 140. [BACK]

31. Bent Rold Andersen describes his frustrations as social minister in trying to achieve some of these reforms in "Creating Coherent Public Policy for the Elderly in a Welfare State," in Two Essays on the Nordic Welfare State (Copenhagen: Local Government Research Institute on Public Finance and Administration, 1983), 73-75. [BACK]

32. For this last point I am indebted to discussions with Barbara Katz Rothman. [BACK]

33. Fred Hirsch, The Social Limits to Growth (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978), 52, 54. break [BACK]

34. Bernt Hagtvet and Erik Rudeng, "Scandinavia: Achievements, Dilemmas, Challenges," in Norden: The Passion for Equality, ed. Stephen R. Graubard (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1986), 301. [BACK]

35. Neil Gilbert, "Sweden's Disturbing Family Trends," Wall Street Journal, 22 June 1987, 6. [BACK]

36. Ole Bertelsen and Peter Linde, Efterspørgsel efter offentlig dagpasning (Copenhagen: Danish Social Research Institute, 1985), 33-34. [BACK]

37. Neil Gilbert, Capitalism and the Welfare State: Dilemmas of Social Benevolence (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1983), 110-14. [BACK]

38. For a refutation of the aged-dependency ratio, see Merton C. Bernstein and Joan Brodshaug Bernstein, Social Security: The System That Works (New York: Basic Books, 1988), 70-89. [BACK]

39. Walzer, Spheres of Justice, 39. [BACK]

40. For a thorough examination of these issues, see Alan Dowty, Closed Borders (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1987). [BACK]

41. For examples and analysis, see Barry Bluestone and Bennett Harrison, The Deindustrialization of America: Plant Closings, Community Abandonment, and the Dismantling of Basic Industry (New York: Basic Books, 1982). [BACK]

42. Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origin of Our Times (Boston: Beacon Press, 1957), 141. [BACK]

43. The term normal accidents comes from Charles Perrow, Normal Accidents: Living with High-Risk Technologies (New York: Basic Books, 1984). [BACK]

44. On how free-market economics can be linked to strong government, especially in the British context, see Andrew Gamble, The Free Economy and the Strong State (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1988). [BACK]

45. For a different point of view, see William R. Catton, Jr., Gerhard Lenski, and Frederick H. Buttel, "To What Degree is a Social System Dependent on Its Resource Base?" in The Social Fabric, ed. James F. Short (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1986), 166. break [BACK]