1 The Beginnings, 1000-1700
1. D. B. Quinn, North America from Earliest Discovery to First Settlements (New York, 1977), p. 32.
2. Samuel Eliot Morison, The European Discovery of America: The Northern Voyages, A.D . 500-1600 (New York, 1971), ch. 3.
3. M.L. Fernald, "Notes on the Plants of Wineland the Good," Rhodora 12 (1910): 23-25, 32-38.
4. Quinn, North America , p. 32.
5. J. R. McGrew, "A Review of the Origin of Interspecific Hybrid Grape Varieties," American Wine Society Manual no. 10 (Royal Oak, Mich., 1981), p. 2; George Ordish, The Great Wine Blight (London, 1972), p. 8.
6. A. J. Winkler et al., General Viticulture , rev. ed. (Berkeley, 1974), p. 657; Philip Wagner, "Wine from American Grapes," American Mercury 28 (1933): 360.
7. Philip Wagner, Grapes into Wine (New York, 1976), p. 34. On American varieties in general, see Liberty Hyde Bailey, "The Species of Grapes Peculiar to North America," Gentes Herbarum 3 (1934): 149-244.
8. U. P. Hedrick, The Grapes of New York (Albany, N.Y., 1908), p. 28.
9. Samuel Eliot Morison, ed. , Journals . . . of Columbus (New York, 1963), p. 242.
10. William Bradford, 16 November 1620, in Alexander Young, Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers (Boston, 1841), p. 130. Labrusca is the Latin word for the wild vine of Europe, but it was given by Linnaeus, confusingly enough, to this American species.
11. M. A. Amerine and W. V. Cruess, The Technology of Wine Making (Westport, Conn., 1960), P. 59.
12. Amerine and Cruess, Technology of Wine Making , p. 59.
13. Wines and Fines 69 (July 1978): 62.
14. McGrew, "Origin of Interspecific Hybrid Grape Varieties"; T. V. Munson, Foundations of American Grape Culture (Denison, Tex. [1909]); Winkler et al., General Viticulture . Other native species that have contributed to the development of useful hybrids include V. berlandieri, V. candicans, V. champini, V. cinerea, V. lincecumii, V. longii , and V. monticola .
15. Richard Hakluyt, The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the English Nation (1589; reprint, Glasgow, 1903-5), 8: 430.
16. Morison, European Discovery of America , p. 298.
17. Hakluyt, Principal Navigations , 8:430.
18. Ibid., p. 221.
17. Hakluyt, Principal Navigations , 8:430.
18. Ibid., p. 221.
19. Howard S. Russell, Indian New England before the Mayflower (Hanover, N.H., 1980), p. 85.
20. Hakluyt, Principal Navigations , 10: 51, 56.
21. Francisco Watlington-Linares, "The First American Wine," Eastern Grape Grower and Winery News 9 (October-November 1983): 50-52, based in part on the work of Dr. Stanley South for the Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of South Carolina, 1980, 1981.
22. Ibid.
21. Francisco Watlington-Linares, "The First American Wine," Eastern Grape Grower and Winery News 9 (October-November 1983): 50-52, based in part on the work of Dr. Stanley South for the Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of South Carolina, 1980, 1981.
22. Ibid.
23. Hakluyt, Principal Navigations , 8: 298-99.
24. E.g., Hakluyt, Divers Voyages Touching the Discovery of America (London, 1850), p. 134; Hakluyt, Principal Navigations , 8: 355.
25. Quoted as motto to P. Morton Shand, A Book of French Wines (London, 1928), and roughly translatable as: "A good Frenchman, when I drink my glass filled with ardent wine I thank God that they haven't got any in England."
26. Léonie Villard, La France et les États-Unis (Lyon, 1952), p. 52.
27. Michael Drayton, "Ode to the Virginian Voyage" (1606), in Poems , ed. John Buxton (Cambridge, Mass., 1953), 1: 123-25.
28. George Percy, "Discourse" (1608?), in Philip L. Barbour, ed., The Jamestown Voyages under the First Charter, 1606-1609 (Cambridge, 1969), 1: 138.
29. Francis Magnel's "Relation" (c. 1607-8), in Barbour, Jamestown Voyages , 1: 153.
30. Robert Johnson, "Nova Britannia," in Peter Force, ed., Tracts Relating Principally to the Origin, Settlement, and Progress of the Colonies in North America , 4 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1836-46), 1: no. 6, p. 16.
31. Robert Johnson, "The New Life of Virginia" (1612), in Force, ed., Tracts , 1: no. 7, P. 9.
32. Johnson, "Nova Britannia," p. 16.
33. Captain John Smith, A Map of Virginia (1612), in Barbour, Jamestown Voyages , 2: 346.
34. William Strachey, The Historic of Travell into Virginia Britania (1612) , ed. L. B. Wright and Virginia Freund (London, 1953), pp. 121-22.
35. Alexander Brown, The Genesis of the United States (Boston, 1890), 1: 385
36. "A True Declaration of the Estate of the Colony in Virginia" (1610), in Force, ed., Tracts , 3: no. x, pp. 20, 23.
37. Lord De La Warr to Virginia Company (7 July 1610), in Brown, Genesis of the United States , 1: 409-10.
38. De La Warr's "Relation" (1611), in Brown, Genesis of the United States , 1: 482.
39. Ralph Hamor, A True Discourse of the Present State of Virginia (1615) (Richmond, Va., 1957), p. 22.
40. William Strachey, "For the Colony in Virginea Britannia, Lawes Divine, Morall and Martiall, Etc.," in Force, ed., Tracts , 3: no. 2, pp. 16-17.
41. Brown, Genesis of the United States , 1: 248, 353-
42. S. M. Kingsbury, ed., The Records of the Virginia Company of London (Washington, D.C., 1906-35) 3: 166.
43. Kingsbury, Records 3: 116.
44. Villard, La France et les États-Unis , p. 56; United Kingdom, Public Record Office, Calendar of State Papers, Colonial, 1574-1660 , 8 April 1623; William and Mary Quarterly , 1st ser., 9 ( 1900- 1901): 86; 13 (1904): 289; Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 2 (1894-95): 79, 310-11; 6 (1898-99): 241-42.
45. Warren M. Billings, ed., The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1975), p. 34.
46. Clifford M. Lewis and Albert J. Loomie, eds., The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570-1572 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1953), pp. 138-39, 141.
47. John Pury to Sir Edwin Sandys, 14 and 16 January 1620 (Kingsbury, ed., Records , 3: 254, 256).
48. Samuel Purchas, Purchas His Pilgrimes (Glasgow, 1905-7), 19:153. This phenomenon is easily possible if the cutting includes a fruitful bud or buds from the parent vine. But the grower should remove the clusters that grow from any such buds until the vine is mature enough to sustain them. That the Virginia French apparently did not suggests that they had little experience in viticulture.
49. Ibid.
48. Samuel Purchas, Purchas His Pilgrimes (Glasgow, 1905-7), 19:153. This phenomenon is easily possible if the cutting includes a fruitful bud or buds from the parent vine. But the grower should remove the clusters that grow from any such buds until the vine is mature enough to sustain them. That the Virginia French apparently did not suggests that they had little experience in viticulture.
49. Ibid.
50. "A Declaration of the State of the Colony and Affairs in Virginia," in Force, ed., Tracts , 3: no. 5, p-15.
51. Kingsbury, ed., Records , 2: 349.
52. Ibid., 2: 102 (5 September 1622); 3:663 (9 July 1622).
51. Kingsbury, ed., Records , 2: 349.
52. Ibid., 2: 102 (5 September 1622); 3:663 (9 July 1622).
53. John Bonoeil, His Maiesties Gracious Letter to the Earle of South-Hampton . . . commanding the present setting up of Silke works, and planting of Vines in Virginia (London, 1622).
54. Kingsbury, ed., Records , 3: 663.
55. Bonoeil, His Majesties Gracious Letter , pp. 49-50.
56. Captain Butler, "Dismasking of Virginia" (1622), in Kingsbury, ed., Records , 2: 375, 384 (23, 30 April 1623).
57. Edmund S. Morgan, "The First American Boom," William and Mary Quarterly , 3d ser., 28 (1971): 169-98.
58. Kingsbury, Records , 3:647 (10 June 1622).
59. Ibid., 3:365-67 (July 1620).
60. Ibid., 4:272 (31 August 1623).
61. Ibid., 4:453 (30 January 1624).
62. Ibid., 2:349 (12 April 1623).
58. Kingsbury, Records , 3:647 (10 June 1622).
59. Ibid., 3:365-67 (July 1620).
60. Ibid., 4:272 (31 August 1623).
61. Ibid., 4:453 (30 January 1624).
62. Ibid., 2:349 (12 April 1623).
58. Kingsbury, Records , 3:647 (10 June 1622).
59. Ibid., 3:365-67 (July 1620).
60. Ibid., 4:272 (31 August 1623).
61. Ibid., 4:453 (30 January 1624).
62. Ibid., 2:349 (12 April 1623).
58. Kingsbury, Records , 3:647 (10 June 1622).
59. Ibid., 3:365-67 (July 1620).
60. Ibid., 4:272 (31 August 1623).
61. Ibid., 4:453 (30 January 1624).
62. Ibid., 2:349 (12 April 1623).
58. Kingsbury, Records , 3:647 (10 June 1622).
59. Ibid., 3:365-67 (July 1620).
60. Ibid., 4:272 (31 August 1623).
61. Ibid., 4:453 (30 January 1624).
62. Ibid., 2:349 (12 April 1623).
63. Alexander Brown, The First Republic in America (Boston, 1898), p. 562.
64. "An Answer to a Declaration of the Present State of Virginia" (1623), in Kingsbury, ed., Records , 4:142 (May 1623).
65. George Sandys to John Ferrar, March 1623 (Kingsbury, ed., Records , 4: 124).
66. Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 65 (1957): 21.
67. Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 20 (1912): 156.
68. Edward Williams, "Virginia . . . Richly and Truly Valued" (1650), in Force, ed., Tracts , 3: no. 11, pp. 16-18, writes as though all one had to do was to plant the vines; more than thirty years later the Reverend John Clayton writes in the same way ( Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 76: [1968]: 427), and so do many others throughout the latter part of the seventeenth century.
69. William Waller Hening, ed., The Statutes at Large: Being a Collection of All the Laws of Virginia (Richmond, Va., 1819-23), 1:115.
70. Ibid., 1: 135-36.
71. Ibid., 1: 161.
69. William Waller Hening, ed., The Statutes at Large: Being a Collection of All the Laws of Virginia (Richmond, Va., 1819-23), 1:115.
70. Ibid., 1: 135-36.
71. Ibid., 1: 161.
69. William Waller Hening, ed., The Statutes at Large: Being a Collection of All the Laws of Virginia (Richmond, Va., 1819-23), 1:115.
70. Ibid., 1: 135-36.
71. Ibid., 1: 161.
72. Williams, "Virginia . . . Richly and Truly Valued," in Force, ed., Tracts , 3: no. 11, p. 17.
73. United Kingdom, Public Record Office, Calendar of State Papers, Colonial, 1574-1660 , p. 98.
74. William Bullock, Virginia Impartially Examined (London, 1649), p. 8.
75. "A Perfect Description of Virginia" (London, 1649), in Force, ed., Tracts , 3: no. 8, p. 14.
76. Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 76 (1968): 427
77. Robert Beverley, The History and Present State of Virginia , ed. Louis B. Wright (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1947), p. 135.
78. Thomas Glover, "An Account of Virginia," in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society , vol. 11 (1676; reprint, Oxford, 1904), pp. 15-16.
79. This idea originated with Giovanni da Verrazzano, who also thought that he had found Arcadia on the east coast of North America (Boies Penrose, Travel and Discovery in the Renaissance, 1420-1620 [Cambridge, Mass., 1952], p. 147).
80. Williams, "Virginia . . . Richly and Truly Valed," in Force, ed., Tracts , 3: no. 11, pp. 16-18, 28.
81. Hening, ed., Statutes at Large , 1: 470.
82. Lyman Carrier, Agriculture in Virginia, 1607-1699 (Williamsburg, Va., 1957), p. 24.
83. John Clayton to Boyle, June 1687, Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 77 (1959): 427.
84. Villard, La France et les États-Unis , p. 59.
85. Conway Zirkle, "John Clayton and Our Colonial Botany," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 67 (1959): 286.
86. Winkler et al., General Viticulture , rev. ed., p. 445.
87. J. R. McGrew, "Black Rot," American Wine Society Journal 9 (1977): 4.
88. It remains a question, however, why the European vine should succumb to, and certain American vines successfully resist, the phylloxera. Structurally, the vines in question are not all that different. The pathology is still under investigation. See Ordish, Great Wine Blight , pp. 106, 108, 184.
89. Liberty Hyde Bailey, Sketch of the Evolution of Our Native Fruits (New York, 1898), p. 13.
90. E.g., S. F. Field, The American Drink Book (New York, 1953), p. 242.
91. Alexander Young, Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers , p. 165.
92. Edward Winslow, "Good News from New England," in Young, Chronicles , pp. 231, 234.
93. Justin Winsor, ed., Narrative and Critical History of America (Boston, 1884-89), 3: 61n.
94. Alexander Young, Chronicles of the First Planters of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay, from 1623 to 1636 (Boston, 1846), pp. 42, 43.
95. "New-England's Plantation" (1630), in Force, ed., Tracts , 1: no. 12, p. 7; Bailey, Evolution of Our Native Fruits , p. 12.
96. Samuel Eliot Morison, Builders of the Bay Colony (Boston, 1930), pp. 246, 247.
97. A. Holmes, "Memoir of the French Protestants," Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 3d ser., vol. 2 (183o): 29-30; J. L. Bishop, History of American Manufactures (Philadelphia, 1866), 1: 272; Charles W. Baird, History of the Huguenot Emigration to America (New York, 1885), 2: 297-302.
98. Holmes, "Memoir," p. 80.
99. Carl R. Woodward, Plantation in Yankeeland (Wickford, R.I., 1971), pp. 50-52.
100. Lydia Sigourney, "On Visiting a Vine among the Ruins of the French Fort at Oxford, Massachusetts," Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 3d ser., vol. 2 (1830): 82.
101. United Kingdom, Public Record Office, Calendar of State Papers, Colonial, 1661-68 , p. 150.
102. William Hubbard, General History of New England , Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 2d ser., vols. 5-6 (1815): 23.
103. Bishop, History of American Manufactures , 1: 270.
104. U. P. Hedrick, History of Horticulture in America to 1860 (New York, 1950), p. 59.
105. Jasper Danckaerts, Journal, 1679-1680 , ed. Bartlett Burleigh James and J. Franklin Jameson (New York, 1913), p. 59.
106. Israel Acrelius, History of New Sweden , Memoirs of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, vol. 11 (1874): 37'
107. Bishop, History of American Manufactures , 1: 273.
108. Albert C. Myers, ed., Narratives of Early Pennsylvania, West New Jersey, and Delaware (New York, 1912), p. 228.
109. G. D. Scull, "Biographical Notice of Doctor Daniel Coxe, of London," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 7 (1883): 328.
110. Alice B. Lockwood, Gardens of Colony and State (New York, 1931-34), 1: 333.
111. Myers, Narratives of Early Pennsylvania , p. 398.
112. M.D. Learned, The Life of Francis Daniel Pastorius (New York, 1908), p. 160; Germantown Crier 34 (1982): 32-33.
113. William Hepworth Dixon, William Penn , new ed. (London, 1872), p. 304
114. J. R. McGrew, "Brief History of Winemaking in Maryland," American Wine Society Journal 9 (1977): 60. The evidence for this vineyard is unclear, and though it seems probable that a vineyard was planned for the site, it is doubtful that it was in fact planted. The comments on its wine, then, if not wholly fanciful, are surely exaggerated.
115. Hedrick, History of Horticulture in America , p. 104.
116. Calvert Papers, Number One , Maryland Historical Society Publications, no. 28 (Baltimore, 1889), pp. 275,296.
117. North Carolina, The Colonial Records of North Carolina , ed. William L. Saunders (Raleigh, N.C., 1886-90), 1:51.
118. United Kingdom, Public Record Office, Calendar of State Papers, Colonial, 1661-1668 , p. 159.
119. Lewis Cecil Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southern United States to 1860 (Washington, D.C., 1933), 1: 44.
120. Thomas Woodward to the proprietors, 2 June 1665, in United Kingdom, Public Record Office, Calendar of State Papers, Colonial, 1661-1668 , p. 304.
121. United Kingdom, Public Record Office, Calendar of State Papers, Colonial, 1675-76 , and Supplement , p. 145.
122. United Kingdom, Public Record Office, Calendar of State Papers, Colonial, 1669-74 , p. 34.
123. South Carolina Historical Society, The Shafiesbury Papers and Other Records Relating to Carolina , Collections of the South Carolina Historical Society, vol. 5 (Charleston, 1897): 175-76.
124. Ibid., 382.
123. South Carolina Historical Society, The Shafiesbury Papers and Other Records Relating to Carolina , Collections of the South Carolina Historical Society, vol. 5 (Charleston, 1897): 175-76.
124. Ibid., 382.
125. St. Julien Childs, Malaria and Colonization in the Carolina Low Country (Baltimore, 1940), p. 157.
126. South Carolina Historical Society, Shaftesbury Papers , 5: 445.
127. Alexander Salley, ed., Records in the British Public Record Office Relating to South Carolina, 1663-1690 (Atlanta, 1928-29), 1: 59.
128. Childs, Malaria and Colonization , p. 212.
129. St. Julien Childs, "The Petit-Guérard Colony," South Carolina Historical and Genealogical Magazine 43 (1942): 1-17; Arthur H. Hirsch, The Huguenots of Colonial South Carolina (Durham, N.C., 1928).
130. Thomas Ashe, "Carolina, or a Description of the Present State of that Country" (1682), in Alexander Salley, ed., Narratives of Early Carolina, 1650-1708 (New York, 1911), p. 144.
131. Salley, ed., Narratives of Early Carolina , pp. 174-75.
132. Letter of Thomas Newe, 17 May 1682 (Salley, ed., Narratives of Early Carolina , p. 182.)
133. Hirsch, Huguenots , p. 205.
134. South Carolina, The Statutes at Large of South Carolina , Thomas Cooper, ed. (Columbia, S.C., 1836-40), 2: 78.
135. Hirsch, Huguenots , p. 205.
136. Beverley, History and Present State of Virginia , p. 134.
137. Salley, ed., Narratives of Early Carolina , p. 310.
138. Ibid., p. 117.
137. Salley, ed., Narratives of Early Carolina , p. 310.
138. Ibid., p. 117.
139. Robert Bolling, "Pieces concerning Vineyards" (MS, Huntington Library), p. 118.
140. Sir Robert Montgomery, "Discourse concerning the Designed Establishment of a New Colony," in Force, ed., Tracts , 1: no. 7.
141. John Oldmixon, The British Empire in America (1741; reprint, New York, 1969), 1: 517.
142. John Lawson, A New Voyage to Carolina (1709), ed. H. T. Lefler (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1967), p. 118.
143. Frank Schoonmaker and Tom Marvel, American Wines (New York, 1941), pp. 162-67.