1. See, for example, Berenson, Populist Religion and Left-Wing Politics ; Burns, Rural Society and French Politics ; Loubère, Radicalism in Mediterranean France ; Margadant, French Peasants in Revolt ; and Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen . [BACK]

2. See, for instance, Weber, "Comment la politique vint aux paysans." [BACK]

3. Here I agree with Charles Tilly's analysis in "Did the Cake of Custom Break?" in Consciousness and Class Experience , ed. John Merriman (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1979), 17-44. [BACK]

4. See, for instance, Burns, Rural Society and French Politics . [BACK]

5. See Loubère, Radicalism in Mediterranean France . [BACK]

6. Both Loubère and Jean-Marie Mayeur have pointed to the close association of radicalism and socialism in rural areas elsewhere; see ibid., 205; Mayer, Débuts de la Troisième République , 79. See also Judt, Socialism in Provence , 228, who identifies more definite lines of difference between radicalism and socialism in the Var. [BACK]

7. Ira Katznelson, "Constructing Cases and Comparisons," in Working-Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States , ed. Ira Katznelson and Aristide Zolberg (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986), 33. [BACK]

8. On this point more generally, see ibid., 25. [BACK]

9. On this point more generally, see Katznelson and Zolberg, Working-Class Formation . [BACK]

10. See Jean-Daniel Reynaud, Les syndicats en France , vol. 1 (Paris: Seuil, 1975), 140-142. [BACK]

11. See Stearns, Revolutionary Syndicalism and French Labor . [BACK]

12. Zolberg, "How Many Exceptionalisms?" in Katznelson and Zolberg, Working-Class Formation , 403. Jacques Julliard has pointed out that the CGT's revolutionary rhetoric was more the creation of the rank and file than the doctrine of syndicalist leaders. In the Aude it was the opposite. See Julliard, Autonomie ouvrière. Etudes sur le syndicalisme et l'action directe (Paris: Gallimard-Le Seuil, 1988), 15-16. [BACK]