1. Gérard Walter, Histoire des paysans de France (Paris: Flammarion, 1963), 427-428; Gratton, Luttes de classes , 145; France, Ministère de commerce, Direction du travail, Statistique des grèves et des Recours à la conciliation et à l'arbitrage, 1903 (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1903). [BACK]

2. Passama, Condition des ouvriers , 41. [BACK]

3. AD Aude 15M117, Report from commissaire spécial , Narbonne, to prefect, Oct. 21, 1896. [BACK]

4. Ibid., Oct. 21, 1896; Mar. 13, 1897; Jean-François Garidou, "Les mouvements ouvriers agricoles dans l'Aude, 1900-1910," in Carcassonne et sa région (Carcassonne: Gabelle, 1970), 317; Gratton, Luttes de classes , 141; Augé-Laribé, "Ouvriers de la viticulture languedocienne," 308; Verdejo, "Mutation de la vie rurale," 208-209. [BACK]

5. AD Aude 15M30, Report to Ministry of the Interior from the municipality of Narbonne outlining Bourse activities, 1902. [BACK]

6. AD Aude 15M90, Dossiers of formation and composition of workers' organizations. [BACK]

7. Report of delegate from Carcassonne to First Congress of the Fédération des travailleurs agricoles du Midi, 1903; cited by Pierre Vilar, Introduction to Gratton, Luttes de classes , 13. [BACK]

8. AD Aude 15M117 and 125, Police reports on strike of December 13, 1904. [BACK]

9. See AD Aude 11M157, "Dénombrement de la population. Etats nominatifs des habitants de Coursan, 1911"; Maitron, Dictionnaire biographique , vol. 11, pt. 3, p. 201; TGI Narbonne, "Etat civil de Coursan, Actes de naissances, 1880-1914"; interviews with Anastasie Vergnes (née Cheytion), sister of François Cheytion and Marius Cheytion, Coursan, June 28, 1973, and Aug. 20, 1974. [BACK]

10. Archives départementales de l'Hérault 15M49, Letters from prefect of the Hérault to mayor of Montpellier, Apr. 13 and 14, 1902; Letter from Cheytion to prefect of the Hérault declaring his candidacy, Apr. 8, 1902; 15M50, La Dépêche de Toulouse , Apr. 28, 1902, election returns. [BACK]

11. See Fédération des travailleurs agricoles du Midi, Compte rendu des travaux du 3 ^e Congrès de la Fédération des travailleurs agricoles du Midi (Perpignan: D. Muller, 1906), 54 (hereafter cited as FTAM, 3 ^e Congrès). [BACK]

12. On unions' ambivalence or hostility to working women generally, see Louise A. Tilly, "Paths of Proletarianization: Organization of Production, Sexual Division of Labor, and Women's Collective Action," Signs 7 (1981): 400-417; Marie-Hélène Zylberberg-Hocquard, Femmes et féminisme dans le mouvement ouvrier français (Paris: Editions ouvrières, 1981), 91-93, 184-195; Charles Sowerwine, "Workers and Women in France Before 1914: The Debate over the Couriau Affair," Journal of Modern History 55 (Sept. 1983): 411-441. By 1911 women in France counted for under 10 percent of the unionized workers (36 percent of the labor force was female); see Madeleine Guilbert, Les femmes et l'organisation syndicale en France avant 1914 (Paris: Centre national de la recherche scientifique, 1966), 28; Zylberberg-Hocquard, Femmes et féminisme , 108, 152. [BACK]

13. FTAM, 3 ^e Congrès, 49. [BACK]

14. See, for example, Louis Amphoux, "Crimes impunis," Le Paysan , no. 3 (July 1905); and B. Fournie, "Suppression du travail de la femme agricole," Le Paysan , no. 7 (July 1906). [BACK]

15. For membership in Audois unions, see AD Aude 15M90, 99, 100, and 117; also Prévot, "Récents mouvements agraires"; Gratton, Luttes de classes , 133-197; Mayeur, Débuts de la Troisième République , 188-189. Average union membership in France has been calculated from the following sources: France, Ministère du travail et de la prévoyance sociale, Annuaire des syndicats professionnels, industriels, commerciaux et agricoles, déclarés conformément à la loi du 21 mars 1884 (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1912), xxxii; Toutain, Population de la France , tables 61-63, p. 165. See also Stearns, Revolutionary Syndicalism and French Labor , 23; and Michelle Perrot, Les ouvriers en Grève, 1871-1890 (Paris: Mouton, 1974), 2:447. [BACK]

16. See Baker, "Socialism in the Nord." [BACK]

17. Rebérioux, République radicale? 167. [BACK]

18. AD Aude 15M99, Dossiers on the formation of workers' organizations and unions. [BACK]

19. P. Picard and M. Picard, Terre de luttes (les précurseurs, 1848-1939). Histoire du mouvement ouvrier dans le Cher (Paris: Editions sociales, 1977); Gratton, Luttes de classes , 59-106, for lumbermen of central France; William McMechan, "A Syndicalist Response to Socialism: The French Building Trades, 1906-1914" (Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Historical Association, Dallas, 1977). [BACK]

20. Jacques Julliard, "Théorie syndicaliste révolutionnaire et pratique gréviste," Mouvement social 65 (1968): 55-69; on contracts in the Aude, see France, Ministère de commerce, Statistique des grèves , for 1900-1915. [BACK]

21. Hanagan, Logic of Solidarity , 15. [BACK]

22. A. Souchon, La crise de la main d'oeuvre agricole en France (Paris: Rousseau, 1914), 21; R. Pech, Entreprise viticole , 416-420; Montgomery, "Workers' Control over Machine Production," 488. [BACK]

23. AD Aude 6M360-361, "Documents anarchistes"; 7 M 114, "Police des spectacles." [BACK]

24. Aminzade, Class, Politics, and Early Industrial Capitalism, 77. [BACK]

25. E. P. Thompson, "The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Nineteenth Century," Past and Present 50 (Feb. 1971): 76-106; Tilly, Tilly, and Tilly, Rebellious Century , 85; James C. Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976). See also William Reddy, "The Language of the Crowd in Rouen, 1752-1871," Past and Present 74 (Feb. 1977): 62-89. [BACK]

26. James Scott, Moral Economy , 184-185 et seq. [BACK]

27. AD Aude 15M125, "Grèves agricoles, Dossiers des grèves . . . pour l'arrondissement de Narbonne, 1903-1906," Letter from sub-prefect of the Aude to prefect, Jan. 8, 1904; 15M121, "Grèves et grèves agricoles, Télégrammes de presse," Letter of prefect to minister of the interior on strikes, Feb. 1, 1904. These reports suggest that local government authorities were initially sympathetic to the situation of vineyard workers. [BACK]

28. Gratton, Luttes de classes , 145-146; R. E. Mataillon, Les syndicats ouvriers dans l'agriculture (Paris: Bonvalot-Jouve, 1908), 49; France, Ministère de commerce, Statistique des grèves, 1904 , 433-444; reports in Le Petit Meridional , Jan. 4, 7, and 9, 1904; Prévot, "Récents mouvements agraires." [BACK]

29. See AD Aude 15M125, "Grèves agricoles"; Le Petit Méridional , Jan. 11 and 14, 1904. [BACK]

30. AD Aude 15M121, Prefect's reports to minister of the interior, Jan. 21 and Feb. 1, 1904; 15M125, Police report on the strike of January 23, 1904; 15M126, Deposition of curé of Coursan, Jan. 15, 1904. The red flag first appeared with the May First demonstrations at the end of the nineteenth century; in earlier demonstrations workers used the tricolor, as a symbol of 1789. See Perrot, Ouvriers en grève , 2:567; article from La Dépêeche de Toulouse , cited in Walter, Histoire des paysans , 428. [BACK]

31. J. Harvey Smith, "Agricultural Workers and the French Wine-Growers Revolt of 1907," Past and Present 79 (1978): 107; AD Aude 15M121, Report of prefect to minister of the interior, Feb. 1, 1904. [BACK]

32. AD Aude 15M126, "Grèves agricoles, Dossiers des grèves dans la localité de l'arrondissement de Narbonne," Article from Le Petit Méridional , Jan. 11, 1904; Prévot, "Récents mouvements agraires," 544-545. From 1905, when the CGT began to step up its campaign for the eight-hour day, vineyard workers argued for a six-hour day on the grounds that it would help reduce unemployment; see Fédération des travailleurs agricoles du Midi, Compte rendu des travaux du 2 ^e Congrès national des travailleurs agricoles et partis similaires organisé par la Section de l'Aude (Narbonne: J. Boulet, 1904), 35; FTAM, 3 ^e Congrès, 46. These demands were very different from those raised by workers in Cruzy, Hérault, for example, who attempted to defend "the right of the small producer to free sale on the market of natural wines at a reasonable profit" (Smith, "Work Routine and Social Structure,'' 375). [BACK]

33. Tilly, Tilly, and Tilly, Rebellious Century ; Laura Levine Frader, "Grapes of Wrath: Vineyard Workers, Labor Unions, and Strike Activity in the Aude, 1860-1913," in Class Conflict and Collective Action , ed. Louise A. Tilly and Charles Tilly (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1981), 196. [BACK]

34. AN BB ¹⁸ 2296 (437A05), Report of procureur général , Montpelier, to minister of the interior, Nov. 25, 1905. [BACK]

35. On artisans' contributions, see La République sociale , Jan. 28, 1904. [BACK]

36. Le Petit Méridional , Jan. 14, 1904. [BACK]

37. See Perrot, Ouvriers en grève 2:527; AD Aude 15M117, Report of commissaire spécial , Narbonne, to prefect, Nov. 18, 1901. [BACK]

38. France, Ministère de commerce, Statistique des grèves, 1904 , 8-11, 32-35; AD Aude 15M125, "Grèves agricoles," Circular from minister of the interior on the January strike; 15M126, "Grèves agricoles," Article from Le Petit Méridional , Jan. 22, 1904. [BACK]

39. Mataillon, Syndicats ouvriers , 54. [BACK]

40. Michel Augé-Laribé, "Les résultats des grèves agricoles dans le Midi de la France," Le Musée Social , Oct. 1904, 287ff. [BACK]

41. On the March and April strikes, see Mataillon, Syndicats ouvriers , 56-61; AD Aude 15M126, "Grèves agricoles," Dossier on April strike in Coursan; France, Ministère de commerce, Statistique des Grèves, 1904 , 32-35. [BACK]

42. On the formation of the FTAM, see Gratton, Luttes de classes , 143-144; Mataillon, Syndicats ouvriers , 256ff.; AD Aude 15M101, "Statuts de la Fédération . . . du département de l'Aude"; Fédération des travailleurs agricoles du Midi, Compte rendu des travaux du 1 ^er Congrès national des travailleurs agricoles et partis similaires organisé par la Fédération des travailleurs agricoles de l'Hérault (Béziers: J.-B. Perdraut, 1903), 10-11, 39-42, 75, 78. [BACK]

43. FTAM, 3 ^e Congrès, 53-55. [BACK]

44. Gratton, Luttes de classes , 152; Augé-Laribé, "Résultats des grèves agricoles," 290ff.; Mataillon, Syndicats ouvriers ; FTAM, 3 ^e Congrès, 45. [BACK]

45. See AD Aude 15M121, Report of commissaire central , Narbonne, to prefect, Nov. 23, 1904. [BACK]

46. In a straw poll taken prior to the strike call, 29 out of 132 unions opposed the strike, 72 supported it, and 31 did not respond. See AD Aude 15M121, "Grèves et grèves agricoles," Circular signed by Paul Ader; Appeal from Federation strike committee; Mataillon, Syndicats ouvriers , 61. The following standard conditions were adopted:

1. A six-hour minimum, eight-hour maximum work day.

2. A minimum wage of 50 centimes an hour.

3. Sulfating to last no more than eight hours, for 4 francs and two liters of wine.

4. Harvest and pressing days fixed at eight hours for 4.50 francs and three liters of wine.

5. Overtime at harvest to be paid at 75 centimes an hour.

6. Women to earn half as much as men in both money and wine.

7. No overtime or piecework, except during harvest.

8. Mésadiers to earn 35 francs a month for six hours of work per day, and 45 francs a month for eight hours of work per day.

9. Workers to be paid on Saturday at their place of work.

10. Travel time to work to be paid by the patron; return from work paid by the worker.

11. Two liters of good wine to be given to men throughout the year.

12. After a rain work to begin three days later.

13. Workers to be paid for each hour of work they begin.

14. Workers may not be fired for striking or for membership in a union.

See FTAM, 2 ^e Congrès, 36-38; AD Aude 15M121, "Grèves et grèves agricoles," Report from commissaire spécial to prefect, Apr. 1, 1905. [BACK]

47. AN BB ¹⁸ 2272 (230A04), "Grèves artisanales, agricoles, etc.," Reports from procureur général , Montpellier, to minister of justice, Jan. 24, Feb. 19, and March 15, 1905; Telegram from procureur général , Narbonne, to minister of justice, Dec. 24, 1904. [BACK]

48. AD Aude 15M120, "Grèves agricoles, Articles de presse," Newspaper accounts in Le Petit Meridional , Dec. 4 and 6, 1904; La Dépêche de Toulouse, Dec. 5, 1904; L'Humanité , Dec. 8, 1904; Poster from the FTAM calling on shopkeepers for support; 15M121, "Grèves et grèves agricoles," Telegram, Dec. 8, 1904. [BACK]

49. On municipal protests against troops, see AN F ⁷ 13626, Articles from La Petite République , Dec. 8, 1904; L'Humanité , Dec. 8, 1904; AD Aude 15M120, "Grèves agricoles"; Article from Le Petit Méridional , Dec. 13, 1904. [BACK]

50. Paul Ader, "La grève générale des travailleurs agricoles du Midi," Le Mouvement socialiste 147 (Jan. 15, 1905): 133-134. [BACK]

51. AD Aude 15M120, "Grèves agricoles," La Dépêche de Toulouse , Dec. 11, 1904. [BACK]

52. AD Aude 15M117, "Réunions publiques, meetings contre le chômage, la vie chère, etc.," Report from prefect to minister of the interior, Dec. 13, 1904; 15M126, "Grèves agricoles, Dossiers des grèves," Additional police reports, Dec. 3 and 4, 1904. François Cheytion was one of those arrested for stealing provisions, which he turned over to the strike committee. [BACK]

53. Ader, "La grève générale," 137. [BACK]

54. On the first incident in Coursan, see AD Aude 15M117, "Réunions publiques, meetings contre le chômage, la vie chère, etc.," Report from prefect to minister of the interior, Dec. 17, 1904; 15M120, "Grèves agricoles, Articles de presse," Le Républicain de Narbonne , Apr. 2,1905; 15M121, "Grèves et grèves agricoles. Etat concernant les faits de grève"; 15M126, "Grèves agricoles,'' Police report, Dec. 13, 1904. This form of action was, as far as we know, never taken by male strikers. For other examples, see Frank Snowden, ''Violence and Social Control in Southern Italy, Apulia, 1900-1922" (Paper presented to the Social History Seminar, Centre for the Study of Social History, University of Warwick, Mar. 1983); Stearns, Revolutionary Syndicalism and French Labor , 68; Perrot, Ouvriers en grève , 505. On the incident in Salles, see AD Aude 15M120, "Grèves agricoles, Articles de Presse," La Dépêche de Toulouse , Mar. 9 and 10, 1905. [BACK]

55. France, Ministère de commerce, Statistique des Grèves, 1904 , 493-494; AD Aude 15M120, "Grèves agricoles, Articles de presse," La Dépêche de Toulouse , Dec. 17, 1904; Le Petit Méridional , Dec. 17, 18, and 19, 1904; Le Télégramme , Dec. 20, 1904. [BACK]

56. See FTAM, 3 ^e Congrès, 45. [BACK]

57. See Gabriel-Ellen Prévot, "Après la grève agricole," L'Humanité , Dec. 19, 1904; Gabriel-Ellen Prévot, "Les Grèves agraires du Midi: La grève générale agricole du Midi," La Revue socialiste 41 (Jan. 1905): 107-108 (also cited in Gratton, Luttes de classes , 163). On syndicalist critiques, see FTAM, 3 ^e Congrès, 28. [BACK]

58. Fédération des travailleurs agricoles du Midi, Compte rendu des travaux du 4 ^e Congrès de la Fédération des travailleurs agricoles et partis similaires du Midi (Paris: Maison des Fédérations, Service de l'imprimerie, 1906), 14. [BACK]

59. Shorter and Tilly, Strikes in France , 83-85, 92. A longer discussion of the relationship of strike activity in the Aude to standard of living and the 1907 revolt follows in Chapter 7. [BACK]

60. See Gratton, Luttes de classes , 169-171. The third congress of the FTAM had adopted resolutions favoring legislation on work accidents, arbitration councils, and retirement legislation for agricultural workers; see FTAM, 3 ^e Congrès, 51-54; FTAM, 4 ^e Congrès, 68-70. [BACK]

61. FTAM, 3 ^e Congrès, 46-47. On the argument for a six-hour day to reduce unemployment, see Le Paysan 2, no. 1 (Jan. 1906). [BACK]

62. AD Aude 15M1l7, Report of prefect, April 17, 1905. [BACK]

63. AD Aude 5M66, Poster, "Aux viticulteurs." [BACK]

64. AD Aude 5M66, "La Défense du Midi," in Le Petit Méridional , June 22, 1905; Articles in Le Télégramme , June 23 and July 11, 1905; Le Radical du Midi , July 2,1905; L'Express du Midi , June 25, 1905; Extract from the deliberations of the Narbonne town council, June 24, 1905; 5M51, Prefect's report of June 22, 1905. See also Action viticole (newspaper published by the Société des syndicats agricoles), July 1905. [BACK]

65. See FTAM, 2 ^e Congrès, 23-24. [BACK]

66. Gratton, Luttes de classes , 172. [BACK]

67. Julliard, "La CGT devant la guerre, 1900-1914," Le Mouvement social 49 (1964): 47-62. [BACK]

68. AD Aude 15M107, "Réunions corporatives à la Bourse du travail." [BACK]

69. AD Aude 15M120, "Grèves agricoles, Articles de presse," Article in La Dépêche de Toulouse , Mar. 23, 1905; FTAM, 3 ^e Congrès, 89; Article in Le Paysan , no. 6 (Oct. 1905), by Marius Reynaud, secretary of the Syndicat des cultivateurs et travailleurs de la terre de Cuxac. [BACK]

70. Mataillon, Syndicats ouvriers , 294; Henri Dubief, Le syndicalisme révolutionnaire (Paris: Armand Colin, 1969), 148. The resolution of the Coursan union was printed in Le Paysan 2, no. 2 (Feb. 1906). For other examples of antimilitarist sentiment in the Aude, see Le Paysan , no. 6 (Oct. 1905). [BACK]

71. FTAM, 1 ^er Congrès, 76-77. [BACK]

72. L. Pieux fils, "Syndicalisme et gouvernements," Le Paysan 1, no. 4 (July 1905), 3. [BACK]

73. Ferroul, writing in La République sociale , Apr. 25, 1895. [BACK]

74. Le Paysan 2, no. 4 (Apr. 1906). [BACK]

76. FTAM, 4 ^e Congrès, 76-77; Dubief, Syndicalisme révolutionnaire , 75-97. [BACK]

77. Dubief, Syndicalisme révolutionnaire , 82, 84. [BACK]

78. Since the 1906 FTAM congress (August) and the CGT Amiens congress (October) both took place after the legislative contest of that year, they could have had no influence on the 1906 balloting; here we are assessing the influence of pre-May 1906 electoral propaganda. [BACK]

79. AD Aude 7M37, "Cercles, chambrées, etc., 1900-1909." On the department federation of the SF10, see AN F ⁷ 12497, "Activité socialiste dans les départements, 1900-1914. Ain à Calvados." [BACK]

80. Quote from Roger Magraw, France, 1815-1914: The Bourgeois Century (London: Fontana, 1984), 252. [BACK]

81. AN F ⁷ 12544, "Elections législatives de 1906," Report from Commissariat spécial des Chemins de fer to director of the Sûreté générale, Paris, Apr. 8, 1906; La Dépêche de Toulouse , Apr. 11, 1906, editorial entitled "Pour les élections." [BACK]

82. AD Aude 2M58, "Recensement général des votes de 1876 à 1914, Elections léegislatives de 1906"; and Loubère, Radicalism in Mediterranean France , 210-213. [BACK]

83. For a similar conclusion relating to the 1910 elections, see Gratton, Luttes de classes , 206. Abstentions in the May 1906 elections were 20 percent nationally and averaged 25-30 percent in the Aude; see Lancelot, Abstentionisme électoral , 56-59; and below. [BACK]

84. Madeleine Rebérioux, Review of Les ouvriers en grève , by Michelle Perrot, Le Mouvement social 93 (Oct.-Dec. 1975): 114. [BACK]