2 Protourbanization of the Countryside, Culture, and Politics in the Golden Age of the Vine
1. Margadant, French Peasants in Revolt , 55. I am using the term protourbanization in the same sense as Margadant and Charles Tilly have used it, to refer to the "expansion of urban influence over rural communities" (ibid.). [BACK]
2. René Nelli, Le Languedoc et le comté de Foix, le Roussillon (Paris: Gallimard, 1958), 59-60; Charles Parain, "La maison vigneronne en France," Arts et traditions populaires 4 (Oct.-Dec. 1955): 289-378. [BACK]
3. For the development of cafés in the 1840s and 1850s, see Merriman, Agony of the Republic , 97-101; for the later development of political cafés, see AD Aude 5M51, Letter from mayor of Coursan to subprefect of the Aude, Aug. 29, 1872; AD Aude 17J7, "Visites pastorales, Coursan," Report of 1878. [BACK]
4. Daniel Fabre and Jacques Lacroix, La vie quotidienne des paysans du Languedoc au XIX e siècle (Paris: Hachette, 1973), 238-240; Daniel Fabre and Charles Camberoque, La fête en Languedoc (Toulouse: Edouard Privat, 1978); Abel Chatelain, Les migrations temporaires en France de 1800 à 1914 (Lille: Publications de l'Université de Lille III, 1976) 1:133. [BACK]
5. Fabre and Lacroix, Vie quotidienne , 197-264. [BACK]
6. Ibid., 249-250. [BACK]
7. Rémy Pech, "L'organisation du marché du vin en Languedoc et en Roussillon aux XIX e et XX e siècles, Etudes rurales 78-80 (Apr.-Dec. 1980): 106, 111. [BACK]
8. Ibid., 103-105. [BACK]
9. Ibid., 105. [BACK]
10. Ibid., 106. [BACK]
11. Romain Plandé, Géographie et histoire du département de l'Aude (Grenoble: Editions françaises nouvelles, 1944), 57, 170; Bureau du greffier du tribunal de grande instance, Narbonne, Aude (hereafter referred to as TGI, Narbonne), "Etat civil de Coursan, Actes de naissance, 1851-1881"; "Actes de décès, 1851-1881." Between 1851 and 1881, Coursan had a mean crude birth rate of 22.0 and a mean crude mortality rate of 21.9; both rates were relatively low for the department and region. See Carrière and Dugrand, Région méditerranéenne , 24-27; Etienne Van de Walle, The Female Population of France in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974), 255; Dugrand, Villes et campagnes , 439; Verdejo, "Mutation de la vie rurale," 122; France, Ministère du commerce, Direction du travail, Statistique générale, Annuaire statistique de la France. Première année, 1878 (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1878), table 1, ''Mouvement général de la population en 1875." [BACK]
12. France, Ministére de l'agriculture, Enquête agricole par application du décrêt du 28 mars 1866. Enquêtes départementales, 21 e circonscription (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1866), 130, 132-133; Guyot, Régions du sud-est et du sud-ouest, 43-44; Chatelain, Migrations temporaires 1:120-122. [BACK]
13. AD Aude 11M78, "Dénombrement de la Population. Etats nominatifs des habitants de Coursan, 1851"; 11M117, ibid., "1876." [BACK]
14. R. Pech, "Aspects de l'économie narbonnaise," 114. [BACK]
15. Chatelain, Migrations temporaires 1:144; TGI, Narbonne, "Etat civil de Coursan, Actes de manage." [BACK]
16. Cited by Fabre and Lacroix, Vie quotidienne , 374-375; AN F 17 10781, "Mémoires sur les besoins de l'instruction primaire, Aude, Gard, 1860-1861"; F 17 10529, "Etats de la situation des écoles primaires . . . 1878-1879." [BACK]
17. AN F 17 9322, "Inspection des écoles primaires, années 1855-1856. Ardèche à Bouches-du-Rhône." [BACK]
18. Rémy Pech, "La vie politique dans l'Aude, 1881-1902" (Mémoire pour diplôme d'études supérieures d'Histoire, Université de Paris-Sorbonne, 1967), 45; national figures are from Toutain, Population de la France , 217, 227. [BACK]
19. AN F 17 10670, "Etats de la situation des écoles primaires publiques et libres et des écoles maternelles, 1888-1889. Aude à Corrèze." [BACK]
20. Gérard Cholvy, "L'Indifférence religieuse et anticléricalisme à Narbonne et en Narbonnais au XIX e siècle," in Fédération historique du Languedoc-méditerranéen et du Roussillon , vol. 3 (Montpellier: FHLMR, 1973), 78. [BACK]
21. AD Aude 17J7, "Visites pastorales, Coursan," Reports of 1864, 1880, 1882, 1885; AD Aude 5M7, Prefect's report, Nov. 20, 1859. [BACK]
22. Cholvy, "Religion et société au XIX e siècle: Le diocèse de Montpellier" (Thèse de doctorat d'état, Université de Lille), 2 vols. (Lille: Services de réproduction des thèses de l'université, 1973); Raymond Huard, Le mouvement républicain en Bas-Languedoc, 1848 à 1881 (Paris: Fondation nationale des sciences politiques, 1982), 144, 364. [BACK]
23. Fabre and Lacroix, Vie quotidienne , 369; Cholvy, "Indifférence religieuse," 91. [BACK]
24. Cholvy, "Indifférence religieuse," 75-76; Jean Rivière, La sainteté en pays d'Aude (Narbonne: Brille & Gautier, 1949); Rivière, "Croyances et êtres surnaturels," in Gaston Jourdianne, Contribution au folklore de l'Aude (1889; Paris: G.-P. Maisonneuve & Larose, 1973). [BACK]
25. See Berenson, Populist Religion and Left-Wing Politics , 56-67, on more politicized forms of popular religion elsewhere. [BACK]
26. AD Aude 5M7, Monthly prefect reports, Dec. 1855-Dec. 1860; Bimonthly reports of subprefect, 1861-1865; 5M84, Police reports, 1858-1859; 15M120, Report of commissaire spécial , Narbonne, to prefect, Apr. 1, 1905. [BACK]
27. France, Ministère de l'agriculture, Enquête agricole de 1872. Deuxième série , 133. [BACK]
28. Pierre Raynier, Biographie des représentants du département de l'Aude de 1789 à 1900 (Toulouse: Passeman et Alquier, 1901), 87-88; Adolphe Robert and Gaston Cougny, Dictionnaire des parlementaires français (Paris: Bourloton, 1889-1891), 4:8, 312; André-Jean Tudesq, "L'opposition légitimiste en Languedoc en 1840," Annales du Midi 68 (Oct. 1956): 393; AD Aude 21M14, Report of subprefect to prefect of the Aude, Mar. 1841; 5M24, Prefect's reports, 1833 ( Propagande St-Simonienne ); 5M27, Report of subprefect to prefect, Nov. 2, 1840; Magali Jouffroi-Schaeffer, "L'implantation du St-Simonisme dans la ville et la région de Narbonne," in Fédération historique du Languedoc-méditerranéen et du Roussillon, XLV e congrés, vol. 3 (Montpellier: FHLMR, 1973), 61-72. [BACK]
29. AN BB 30 380, "Rapports mensuels du procureur général à Montpellier au ministre de la justice, Dec. 1849-1868," Report of Dec. 13, 1849. [BACK]
30. See the brief account of Barbès's political activities in Jean Maitron, Dictionnaire biographique du mouvement ouvrier français (Paris: Editions ouvrières, 1964), vol. 1 (1789-1864), 147-149; Raynier, Biographie , 199-203. On political clubs and popular associations in the Midi in general, see Merriman, Agony of the Republic , 60-64; Maurice Agulhon, La république au village (Paris: Plon, 1970); AD Aude 5M31, Dossier on political disturbances in Narbonne in 1848 and political clubs in the Narbonnais, Reports of subprefect to prefect, Aug. 16, 1848-June 15, 1849. [BACK]
31. By the middle of 1849, the Club de l'union had almost 1,500 members. See Guthrie, "Reaction to the Coup d'Etat of 1851," 27. [BACK]
32. See, for example, Claire Goldberg Moses, French Feminism in the Nineteenth Century (Albany: SUNY Press, 1985). [BACK]
33. AD Aude 5M31. Teachers were especially prominent. [BACK]
34. Merriman, Agony of the Republic , 58. [BACK]
35. Aminzade, Class, Politics, and Early Industrial Capitalism , 148. [BACK]
36. Loubère, Radicalism in Mediterranean France , 32. [BACK]
37. Roger Price, The Second French Republic: A Social History (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1972), 231-233. The démoc soc program was published in April 1849 in La Réforme . [BACK]
38. Margadant, French Peasants in Revolt , 85-87. [BACK]
39. AD Aude 2M61, "Elections à l'assemblée nationale constituante, 1848," Election propaganda of Théodore Raynal; 2M11, "Révolution de 1848, adhésions au gouvernement provisoire, organisation des municipalités, etc.," Printed broadside, ''Aux Narbonnais," Mar. 10, 1848. [BACK]
40. AD Aude 5M31, Police reports on local disturbances in August 1848. [BACK]
41. AD Aude 2M13-14, Elections for the president of the Republic, Dec. 10, 1848; Paul Carbonnel, Histoire de Narbonne (Narbonne: P. Caillard, 1956), 387; Tudesq, L'élection présidentielle de Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, le 10 décembre 1848 (Paris: Armand Colin, 1965), 208; Price, Second French Republic , 208-225; Maurice Agulhon, 1848 ou l'aprentissage à la république (Paris: Seuil, 1973), 85-87. [BACK]
42. Carbonnel, Histoire de Narbonne , 387-388; AN BB 30 362, Report of procureur général , Montpellier, to minister of justice, Feb. 23, 1849. Merriman, Agony of the Republic , 218, also cites examples of the use of carnival as political allegory from the Var, the Jura, and the Deux-Sèvres. See also Robert Bezucha, "Masks of Revolution: A Study of Popular Culture During the Second French Republic," in Revolution and Reaction: 1848 and the Second French Republic , ed. Roger Price (London: Croom Helm, 1975), 236-253, for other examples, esp. p. 238 on incidents in March 1848 in Fleury, Aude. [BACK]
43. Price, Second French Republic , 231-233. [BACK]
44. M. Bichambis, Narbonne, la robine, et les basses plaines de l'Aude (Narbonne: J. Bousquet, 1926), 460; Price, Second French Republic , 238-240; Loubère, Radicalism in Mediterranean France , 37-40, 46. [BACK]
45. Loubère, Radicalism in Mediterranean France , 39. [BACK]
46. The term is taken from the title of Merriman's book. [BACK]
47. AN BB 30 362, Report of procureur général , Montpellier, to minister of justice, May 7, 1851. On the dismissal of mayors, see Guthrie, "Reaction to the Coup d'Etat of 1851," 35. [BACK]
48. AN BB 30 362, Reports of procureur général , Montpellier, to minister of justice, May 3, 1850; July 7, Aug. 7, Sept. 3, 1851. On resistance to the coup d'état in the Aude, see AD Aude 5M36, Report from subprefect to prefect of the Aude, Jan. 6, 1852; Price, Second French Republic , 242; Guthrie, "Reactions to the Coup d'Etat of 1851." On dress and revolutionary solidarity, see Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984), 79-83. [BACK]
49. AN BB 30 396, Dossier P440, on establishment of secret societies; Merriman, Agony of the Republic ; Margadant, French Peasants in Revolt . [BACK]
50. On similar rituals elsewhere, see Merriman, Agony of the Republic , 207; Price, Second French Republic , 302. [BACK]
51. On the rituals and those who were arrested, see AD Aude 5M36, Letter from subprefect to prefect of the Aude, March 28, 1852; Letter from justice of the peace, Coursan, to subprefect, Nov. 17, 1852; AN BB 30 380, Report of procureur général , Montpellier, to minister of justice, Nov. 11, 1852; AD Aude 5M43, "Etat des individus dangereux à raison de la part qu'ils pourraient prendre à un moment donné dans un mouvement insurrectionnel,'' Mar. 6, 1858; "Etat des individus n'ayant pas pu être compris dans le premier tableau . . . ," Mar. 10, 1858; 5M46, Political events, Apr. 23, 1853-Apr. 13, 1858; Letter from prefect to minister of the interior, Oct. 15, 1855; 5M48, Letter from prefect to minister of the interior, Mar. 31, 1863. [BACK]
52. AD Aude 2M63, Election of deputies to the Corps législatif, May 22-24, 1869; Theodore Zeldin, The Political System of Louis Napoleon III (London: Macmillan, 1958), 135-136; also, on the 1869 elections, see Louis Girard, ed., Les élections de 1869 , vol. 21 in Bibliothèque de la révolution de 1848 (Paris: Marcel Rivière, 1960), xiv; Loubère, Radicalism in Mediterranean France, 93. [BACK]
53. See Zeldin, Emile Olivier and the Liberal Empire of Napoleon III (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963), 154-155; A. Jeanjean and J. Rives, La proclamation de la Troisième République dans le département de l'Aude. Essai historique (Carcassonne: Gabelle, 1920), 11-19; AD Aude 2M16, "Plébiscite du 8 mai 1870." [BACK]
54. AD Aude 5M51, Letter from prefect of the Aude to minister of the interior, Sept. 7, 1871; Letter from mayor of Coursan to subprefect, Aug. 31, 1872. [BACK]
55. On the details of republican politics, see Carbonnel, Histoire de Narbonne , 408-409; AD Aude 2M65, Election of the representatives to the National Assembly, Feb. 5-8, 1871; André Siegfried, "Géographie de l'opinion politique dans le Midi sous la III e République: l'Aude. Les elections de 1849 à 1945" (Course given at the Collège de France, 1939; unpaginated typescript, Archives départementales de l'Aude); Loubère, Radicalism in Mediterranean France , 116. [BACK]
56. Carbonnel, Histoire de Narbonne , 412. [BACK]
57. See "Manifeste de la Ligue du Midi pour la défense de la république du 26 septembre 1870," in Jeanne Gaillard, Communes de province, commune de Paris, 1870-1871 (Paris: Flammarion, 1971), 113-114; Annie Genzling, "La commune de Narbonne en 1871" (Paper presented at the Colloquium on Right and Left in Languedoc-méditerranéen-Roussillon, Université Paul Valéry-Montpellier, June 9-10, 1973). [BACK]
58. From La Fraternité , Mar. 18, 1871; quoted in Gaillard, Communes de province , 114-115. Digeon evoked a popular Christianity which portrayed a Christ in sympathy with the poor and with the working class: "Vous y apprendrez la vraie morale du Christ qui n'est en somme que celle de la sublime devise républicaine, liberté, égalité, fraternité. Le Christ . . . s'il revenait sur la terre . . . chasserait du temple les marchands de médailles et d'indulgences et maudirait les exploiteurs de miracles." This association of religious imagery with political radicalism is strikingly similar to what Edward Berenson has observed for an earlier period ( Populist Religion and Left-Wing Politics ). [BACK]
59. Carbonnel, Histoire de Narbonne , 415. This was the first time the French government used colonial troops to suppress a domestic insurrection. [BACK]
60. AD Aude 5M51, Letters from subprefect to prefect, Sept. 7, 1871, and Oct. 10, 1873; Letter from mayor of Coursan to subprefect, Aug. 29, 1872. [BACK]
61. AD Aude 7M31, Cercles, chambrées, clubs, salons, Letter from subprefect to prefect, Mar. 14, 1872; Georges Germa, "Les élections législatives du 8 février et du 2 juillet 1871 dans l'Aude: Essai historique" (Typescript, Carcassonne, n.d.), 14; Siegfried, "Géographie de l'opinion"; Raynier, Biographie , 130. Fortuné Brousses was elected in a by-election in 1871; Théophile Marcou and Léon Bonnel were elected in 1873. [BACK]
62. AD Aude 5M51, Prefect to minister of the interior, Dec. 10, 1873. [BACK]
63. Loubère, Radicalism in Mediterranean France , 111-112; "Tableau comparatif des programmes radicaux (1849-1898)," in Jacques Kayser, Les grandes batailles du radicalisme, 1820-1901 (Paris: Marcel Rivière, 1962), n.p. [BACK]
64. Aude, Délibérations du Conseil général du département de l'Aude. Procès-verbal des délibérations. Session de 1878 (Carcassonne: Pierre Polère, 1878), 779-782; Garidou, "Viticulture audoise," 37-41. [BACK]