Appendix 3—
Precious Stones in the Paradiso

Dante's use of words for gemstones in the Paradiso, both generic and specific, repays scrutiny.^[1] Dante names the sapphire, balash ruby, diamond, and pearl (as perla ), each only once. But the balasso is a kind of ruby, so its mention forms one of a class with rubino and rubinetti, while perla forms part of a class with the three mentions of margarita. Or does it?—for in old Italian margarita is also a generic term for a precious stone.^[2] Thus the use of margarita in the moon, where perla also appears, is probably specific, those in Mercury and Saturn (not normally associated with pearls) probably generic. Sapphire, although appearing only once as such, also appears in a specific verb, inzaffira (there is also a generic verb, ingemma, which appears twice). Topazio is mentioned twice identically. Only one stone is mentioned three times identically, and that is cristallo, which balances the three appearances—one specific, two generic—of margarita. These uses can be ranked:

A ranking can also be made of the generic terms for precious stones:

The uses are more revealing when arranged by heavens (fig. A-1). We also include whether the lapidary term is of the planet, of the soul(s), or other, and whether it is used properly or as a trope. We omit borderline cases like alabastro (15.24), pietra (20.20), ambra (28.25), and vetro (28.1, 28.25); however, the last two are discussed above, pp. 252–254. Dante's scheme is complex but discernible. It is not primarily based on an implicit ranking of the actual properties of the stones, such as color, hardness, or "virtue," except very generally (the milky whiteness of pearl at one extreme, the complete transparency of crystal at the other, with colored stones—red, yellow, red—mostly central).^[3] Rather, the chief principle of the arrangement is linguistic: it has to do with the range and intensity of meaning of the terms in context. If we exclude the Empyrean, where the two stones are mentioned in similes for the angels, then the pattern is systematic.

The first two, and the three outermost, spheres are symmetrical because of the repeated margarita in the first two, the repeated cristallo in the last three. Moreover, adamante in the moon is linked to cristallo because adamant is a "darker" crystal (Albertus Magnus 1967 39); to correspond, there is one use of margarita in the sphere of Saturn. Even in view of these symmetries, however, linear development is apparent. The divisions correspond to those of Dante's heaven: first the subsolar planets, then the central sun, Mars, and Jupiter; and finally the spheres joined by the ladder the pilgrim sees in Saturn (Saturn, Stars, Primum Mobile and beyond). The moon and the Empyrean are inferior and superior "terminal zones." In each major section there is development. Thus, in Venus there is the introduction of the first clearly generic term, gioia (after the ambiguously generic margarita in Mercury), of Folco, and the first specific term, balasso, also of Folco. This is a "weak" use of a term in a class, however, because the balash is a weak, or watery, ruby.^[4] In the next division, beginning with the sun, the generic gioie pluralizes the use in Venus, now with a new use referring to the sights and sounds of the heaven. Although the sun is poor in terms for gems, Dante's conception of the two crowns (corone ) of theologians suggests that the image of two crowns of gems is implicit (see Freccero 1986 312); on this basis we might entertain Dragonetti's suggestion (1968 302) that Dante includes the solis gemma in the sun.^[5] To the generic gioie we then would add the specific, punning "gem of the sun" (cf. ardenti soli at 10.76). From the paucity of the sun we proceed to Mars, where there is another departure, a new generic term, gemma, further varied by its verbal counterpart ingemmi. Gemma here, for the first time since the heaven of the moon ("perla in bianca fronte"), is used properly, of a real gem on a ribbon ("né si partì la gemma dal suo nastro") to describe the movement of Cacciaguida. Most dramatic, however, is a new specific use, topazio—powerful because of its etymology from the Greek tò pân ("the all," totality), which is linked to the status of Mars as the "harmonic" center of the cosmos ("la più bella relazione," as

Fig. A–1. Uses of Words for Gemstones, by Heavens

Dante says at Convivio 2.14.0) and perhaps also to its reddish-golden color (it anticipates the golden ladder in Saturn).^[6] Jupiter, like the sun, is prevailingly generic: gemme again, the verbal form ingemme, twice repeated; a new diminutive generic form, lapilli; and a new specific form, also weakened by being diminutive, rubinetto, and referring to many souls. The generic dimension is powerful, however, through repetition (gemme is part of a system of rhymes on -emme that recur in the heaven; 18.113–117, 19.1 25–129). The diminution of terms, debility, or veiling of the colored stones in the middle heavens (with the significant exception of the "topaz" Cacciaguida) prepares the domination of the transparent stones and the Virgin's sapphire in the upper. The three last heavens are dominated by the triple repetition of cristallo, in each case more comprehensive. If the force of Jupiter, highest of the middle planets, is generic and cumulative, that of the last three heavens is based on both specificity and breadth of kinds of reference: crystal, specific, of the planet Saturn; margarita, generic, of St. Benedict and other contemplatives; gioia, generic, of Faith—the first abstraction to be represented since the music and lights of the sun. Another unique specific use, zaffiro, of the Virgin, and a unique specific verb, inzaffira, which also refers to the Empyrean, leads to the second appearance of cristallo, standing for John the Evangelist but also comparing him to a sun. In the Primum Mobile, the third use of cristallo is comprehensive to the greatest degree, embracing the entire cosmos.

The logic of Dante's uses of terms for precious stones is therefore one in which terms acquire progressively greater scope and force as they are repeated and varied, with respect to specificity or generality, substantival or verbal form, literal or troped use, depending on context and position in the scheme—much as if they were repeated rhyme-words in the rime petrose; here, too, there is a kind of significant repercussio. Only six distinct kinds of gem are named: adamante, perla (margarita ), balasso (rubinetti, rubino ), topazio, zaffiro, cristallo. Both the relative paucity of uses and the number six recall the practice of the petrose, where three stones (marmo, cristallina petra, and diaspro ) are specifically named and the number six figures prominently. It is striking that the only important class of colored stones omitted are the green stones (which make up the important first group in Isidore's lapidary), while in the petrose both of the colored stones named or implied (elitropia, diaspro ) are traditionally green. Of course, the presence of Beatrice, whose eyes are smeraldi (Purgatorio 31.116) may account for the omission. More striking still is the fact that the system begins with the "obscure" crystal, adamant, and achieves perfection in the repetition of cristallo—the only name of a precious stone reminiscent of the petrose; it is therefore not implausible to deduce that Dante thought of the luminous Paradiso (and perhaps of the whole Commedia, which also includes cristallo at its lowest point, Inferno 33.98) as a great crystal.