The Cigarette Papers "d0e11914"

Conclusion

The tobacco companies funded special projects through three different funding mechanisms; each funding mechanism was subject to extensive lawyer management of scientific research. The special projects included research projects and consultancies that were for writing critiques of scientific studies on tobacco and health and were not limited to providing expert testimony for the tobacco companies. In addition, the documents reveal that lawyers on occasion influenced research that was not funded by the special projects.

The extensive attorney participation in management of the special projects' research on tobacco and health raises some profound and troublesome questions. Industry attorneys may be expected to participate—as advocates—in arranging and presenting expert scientific testimony in lawsuits, law-making proceedings, and regulatory proceedings regarding tobacco and health. The documents show that the role played by lawyers in scientific research went far beyond their customary roles. Industry lawyers were extensively involved in research and symposia that were not directly related to any particular legal or governmental proceeding. Since lawyers are advocates for a position, the broad (and publicly unacknowledged) participation of lawyers in funding, selecting, monitoring, and evaluating research is strong evidence of the extent to which the industry was, in fact, result oriented in its funding and support of nominally independent scientific work and actively sought to obtain favorable (or "positive") results from research that was pre-

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sented as independent scientific work. The result-oriented approach to scientific research revealed by the documents contrasts rather dramatically with the public statements of the industry, which fostered a benevolent image of supporting independent scientific research without attempting to influence the outcome. More fundamentally, the broad role played by lawyers in secretly directing nominally independent scientific research with no apparent relation to particular legal proceedings raises disturbing questions about distortion of the scientific process in order to influence legislators, regulators, and juries who are charged with making decisions based on scientific knowledge. Furthermore, the documents reveal instances in which tobacco industry support was not disclosed by researchers funded by special projects.

The CTR special projects received preliminary judicial scrutiny in a 1992 wrongful death action, Haines v Liggett Group, Inc. , discussed in chapter 7. The court ruled, based in part on the CTR special projects, that the plaintiffs had presented prima facie evidence of fraud by the tobacco companies for purposes of permitting discovery of allegedly privileged tobacco company documents. In discussing the evidence supporting the plaintiff's fraud case, the court's opinion stated:

It now appears that there were a series of research grants designated as "special projects" which were developed in a manner so as to receive the protection of the attorney-client privilege. The "special projects" division was under the auspices of the CTR, although defendants insist that the "special projects" division was managed entirely separately from the CTR. ... The claimed purpose of the "special projects" division was to sponsor research relevant to the links between smoking and disease in order to develop a field of expert witnesses for defensive litigation in tort suits. Consistent with this purpose, defendants' counsel were substantially involved in strategic and specific decision-making within the "special projects" division.

Although defendants represented to the public that research conducted under the auspices of the CTR would be made public, the "special projects" research was not publicized, nor was the existence of the "special projects" division disclosed. In addition to this nominal association between the CTR and tobacco industry, the channelling of selective research proposals into either the CTR or the "special projects" division and the shared research between the two belies defendants' public representations and ongoing defense that the CTR was an independent, objective body [Haines v Liggett Group, Inc. , 140 F.R.D. 681, at 688 (D.N.J. 1992)].

Later, in analyzing the significance of the evidence presented, the court stated:

In the court's opinion, the factual inference arising from the segregation of the "special projects" program and its avowed purpose of generating re-

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search for use in defendants' litigation is highly suggestive of the public fraud which plaintiff alleges. The fact that selective research was "siphoned off" into "special projects" protected against disclosure due [to] the claims of privilege, strongly implies that the CTR "special projects" division was an integral part of the CTR's general practice of sponsoring and reporting selective research. Moreover, sharing the special projects, litigation oriented research with the CTR directly counters defendants' representations that CTR published research was independently selected and monitored. According to defendants themselves, the attorney involvement in the special projects program included proposing and monitoring research consistent with defendants' litigation interests. Such commingling of special projects with CTR research directly implicates the special projects program in the alleged ongoing public fraud for which this court has found prima facia evidence [at 694].

The court then noted that the disputed documents themselves constituted even more persuasive evidence of fraud:

This court's own in camera [private] inspection of selected documents has revealed the most explicit admissions that defendants used the special projects program to further the alleged ongoing fraud and deception surrounding the advertised function and operation of the CTR [at 695].

Finally, the court summarized its findings with regard to the special projects documents:

Given plaintiff's theories of fraud, which, if believed by a jury based on the evidence presented, would give rise to liability, after an in camera review of these selected documents, the court is convinced that the only possible conclusion is that the crime/fraud exception applies to these documents. The court finds that there is prima facie evidence that defendants were engaged in an ongoing fraud, and that defendants obtained attorney assistance in furtherance of that fraud through the use of the special projects division [at 697].

This case was later vacated by the US Court of Appeals because of a procedural error unrelated to the specific findings as to fraud [Haines v Liggett Group, Inc. , 975 F.2d 81 (3d Cir. 1992)].

The decision-making process revealed in the documents is unheard of in research programs funded by other sources, such as the National Institutes of Health. The documents confirm that scientific merit played little role in the selection of special projects or consultancies. Instead, grantees were selected by tobacco industry lawyers on the basis of their potential legal or political usefulness to the tobacco industry. Projects or investigators that had the potential to produce data unfavorable to the industry were not funded.

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TABLE 8.1 SPECIAL PROJECTS AND CONSULTANCIES, 1972–1991
Investigator	Type of Project	Project Title	Dates Funded	Total Funded (dollars)
ACVA Atlantic, Inc.	CTR Special Project	Pilot study to assess residential air quality	1985	13,800
Aviado, Domingo	CTR Special Project	Cardiopulmonary and renal vascular effects of constituents of tobacco smoke	1977–78	85,000
Aviado, Domingo	SA 4 Consultancy	Continuing review of relevant smoking and health topics	1981–86	488,000
Aviado, Domingo	SH&B Consultancy	Continuing review of relevant smoking and health topics	1986–90	187,500
Bahnson, Claus	CTR Special Project	Project studying personality and social factors related to smoking and health	1972–73	8,000
Battelle Columbus Laboratories	SA 4 Research Project	Research to quantify the exposure of the nonsmoker to environmental tobacco smoke	1981–82	83,000
Battelle Columbus Laboratories (cotinine project)	SA 4 Research Project	The experimental determination of nicotine to particulate mass ratios and levels of cotinine in ambient smoke	1982–83	69,000
Berkson, Joseph	SA 4 Consultancy	Continuing consultancy	unknown	1,500/month est.
Bick, Rodger L.	CTR Special Project	A prospective five-year epidemiological study of lung cancer in Kern County [California]	1983–89	159,754
Bick, Rodger L.	SA 4 Consultancy	Biological testing of TGP [tobacco glycoprotein?]	unknown	9,718
Blau, Theodore	SA 4 Consultancy	Analysis and evaluation of literature on the "tobacco habit"	1981–86	120,000
Booker, Walter	SA 4 Consultancy	Continuing consultancy	unknown	500/month
Booker, Walter	SA 4 Consultancy	Preparation of public smoking statement	unknown	2,262
Booker, Walter	SA 4 Consultancy	Continuing consultancy	unknown
Bowers, Evelyn J.	SA 4 Research Project	Data analyses and related expenses to complete dissertation exploring a possible genetic component in disease by gathering historical data on mortality by age and cause in the Orkney Islands	1979	2,500

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Investigator	Type of Project	Project Title	Dates Funded	Total Funded (dollars)
Brooke, Oliver	SA 4 Research Project	Effects of smoking on fetal growth. Study A: Smoking and nutrition; Study B: The effects of psychosocial strees in pregnancy on birth size	1980–86	265,780 pounds
Brotman, Richard/Freedman, Alfred	Special Account 5	Analysis of policy in issues dealing with control and regulation of routine behavior in a democratic society	1979–83	637,000
Brown, Barbara	SA 4 Consultancy	Consultancy	unknown	1,500/month
Buhler, Victor	CTR Special Project	Spend about 40 hours a month reviewing current literature of interest	1977	18,000
Carter, John R.	CTR Special Project	Autopsy study designed to examine accuracy of lung cancer diagnoses (investigators checking autopsy records of university hospitals for period extending from 1948 to 1974 for errors in diagnoses)	1974–76	92,085
Cline, Martin J.	SA 4 Consultancy	Library research and review re: lung retention of particulate matter	unknown	600
Cosentino, Anthony	SA 4 Consultancy	Preparation of statement re: public smoking	unknown	2,500 est.
Cox, Gertrude	SA 4 Consultancy	FDA/OC review; preparation of statement for hearing	unknown	4,000
DiNardi, Salvatore	CTR Special Project	Assessing the contribution of environmental tobacco smoke to the respirable suspended particulate levels in the indoor environment	1986–88	688,878
Dunlap, Charles	SA 4 Consultancy	Preparation of statement re: public smoking	unknown	2,500 est.
Evans, Frederick J.	SA 4 Research Project	Correlates and medical implications of smoking: differences between nonsmokers and quitters vs. chronic smokers and unsuccessful quitters	1981–82	74,434
Eysenck, H. J.	SA 4 Consultancy	Consultancy	1977–80	85,116 (pounds?)
Eysenck, H. J.	SA 4 Research Project	Survey analyzing alternative satisfactions sought by former smokers after they quit	1978–79	5,000 or 6,000 pounds
Eysenck, H. J.	SA 4 Research Project	Study of stress and cardiac disorders in twins	1980–82	25,000 pounds

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TABLE 8.1 (continued)
Investigator	Type of Project	Project Title	Dates Funded	Total Funded (dollars)
Eysenck, H. J.	CTR Special Project	Maintenance of twin registry	1978–86 (1986–89 pending)	133,600 pounds (135,000 pounds pending)
Eysenck, H. J.	CTR Special Project	Study of the relationships among smoking, personality, and lung cancer on a cross-cultural basis	1983–86	127,000 pounds
Farris, Jack Matthews	SA 4 Consultancy	Preparation of statement re: public smoking	unknown	2,500 est.
Feinhandler, Sherwin J.	SA 4 Consultancy	Preparation of statement re: public smoking	unknown	3,042
Feinhandler, Sherwin J.	SA 4 Consultancy	Review of 1979 Surgeon General report	unknown	unknown
Feinstein, Alvan R.	CTR Special Project	Support biostatistician to assist Dr. Feinstein	1976–78, 1981	67,284
Feinstein, Alvan R.	CTR Special Project	Basic epidemiological research studies	1985–86, 1988–90	700,960
Finley, T. N.	CTR Special Project	Construct "lung" model consisting of lipid layer, enzyme, and protein to test activities of lipid monolayer, especially effects on enzyme activity	1977	30,000
Finley, Theodor	SA 4 Consultancy	Preparation of statement re: public smoking	unknown	2,500 est
First, Melvin	SA 4 Research Project	Methods for environmental tobacco smoke measurement	1983	10,000
Fisher, Edwin R.	SA 4 Consultancy	Preparation of statement re: public smoking	unknown	2,500 est.
Fisher, H. Russell	SA 4 Consultancy	Preparation of statement re: public smoking	unknown	2,500 est.
Franklin Institute	CTR Special Project	Isolate 5 g of tobacco glycoprotein from tobacco smoke condensate and tobacco leaf	1978	51,650
Franklin Institute	CTR Special Project	Determination and characterization of tobacco glycoprotein as an artifact	1979	20,130

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Investigator	Type of Project	Project Title	Dates Funded	Total Funded (dollars)
Franklin Institute	CTR Special Project	Generation of 25 Milligrams of artifact	1979	10,000
Friberg, Lars/Cederloff, Rune	CTR Special Project	Preparation of comprehensive monograph on twin methodology and on highlights of their research on Swedish Twin Registry	1975	23,300
Furst, Arthur	CTR Special Project	Study the effects of combined asbestos and benzo(a)pyrene on lungs of mice	1977–79	64,500
Furst, Arthur	SA 4 Consultancy	Preparation of statement re: public smoking	unknown	2,500 est.
Furst, Arthur	SA 4 Research Project	Review of scientific literature	1979–84	108,000
Gibbons, Jean	SA 4 Consultancy	Review of smoking and health articles	unknown	per diem
Gibbons, Jean	SA 4 Consultancy	FDA/OC review; preparation of statement for hearing	1978	1,005
Gorlin, Richard/Klein, Lloyd	Other Special Project	Clinical study of the relationship between smoking and other activities and myocardial ischemic events	1983–86	431,503
Gruhn, John G.	CTR Special Project	Preparation of a monograph, "A History of Lung Cancer"	1985–87	31,200
Gutstein, William	CTR Special Project	Study of neural factors on coronary spasm and atherogenesis	1983–85	271,015
Gutstein, William	CTR Special Project	Hypothalamic stimulation and cardiovascular disease	1985–87	319,545
Harvard Medical School	SA 4 Consultancy	Occasional accounting expenses	unknown	unknown
Hecht, Frederick	CTR Special Project	The nature of fragile sites and their possible relation to cancer	1985–86	35,985
Heimstra, Norman	SA 4 Consultancy	Consultancy and preparation of statement re: public smoking	unknown	1,610
Hickey, Richard J.	CTR Special Project	Epidemiological and etiological studies on the relation of air pollution, smoking, and other environmental variables to human chronic diseases	1976–86	579,849
Hickey, Richard	SH&B Consultancy (see note)	Continuing consultancy	1986–90	24,000
Hickey, Richard	SA 4 Consultancy	Preparation of statement re: public smoking	unknown	2,500 est.
Hilado, Carlos	SA 4 Consultancy	Continuing consultancy	1983–84	48,000
Hine Inc.	SA 4 Research Project	Review literature relating to public smoking	1978–79	unknown
Huber, Gary L.	SH&B Consultancy	Review and analysis of chronic obstructive lung disease literature with focus on pre-1966 literature; review literature on other pulmonary diseases	unknown	computer/staff expenses
Husting, E. L.	CTR Special Project	Methodological study of the effects of control selection and exposure ascertainment bias in the case control context	1986–88	198,034

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TABLE 8.1 (continued)
Investigator	Type of Project	Project Title	Dates Funded	Total Funded (dollars)
Hutcheon, Duncan	CTR Special Project	A pilot project to investigate the environmental pharmacology of industrial inhalants	1979–80	89,870 (additional 35,000 pending)
Hutcheon, Duncan/Regna, Peter	CTR Special Project	Laboratory studies of the cardiovascular effects of carbon monoxide inhalation	1982–83	99,250
Hutcheon, Duncan	CTR Special Project	Electrophysiological properties of the heart following acute and chronic exposure to carbon monoxide	1983–84	79,355
ITT Research Institute	CTR Special Project	Investigation of self-reporting questionnaires for environmental tobacco smoke	1985–86	70,000
IT Corporation	SH&B Research Project	Collaborative pilot study on indoor air sampling	1986–87	25,000
Janis, Joe	CTR Special Project	Statistical model of lung cancer mortality	1979–80	12,800
Jenson, A. Bennett	CTR Special Project	Search for papillomavirus structural antigens in premalignant and malignant squamous cell lesions of the oral cavity and upper and lower respiratory tracts	1982–90	493,853
Knoebel, Suzanne	CTR Special Project	Determine reliability of noninvasive technique to measure changes in cardiac function, if any, during inhalation of tobacco smoke	1977–78	23,825
Knoebel, Suzanne B.	SA 4 Consultancy	Preparation of statement re: public smoking	unknown	2,500 est.
Kupper, Lawrence/Janis, Joseph/Greenberg, Bernard	CTR Special Project	Verification of a statistical age-period-cohort analysis of lung cancer	1982–87	247,500
Kupper, Lawrence/Janis, Joseph	CTR Special Project	Pilot study of causality	1984–85	31,300
La Via, Mariano	CTR Special Project	Support for graduate student to assist in basic research in field of immunopathology	1978–80	24,000

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Investigator	Type of Project	Project Title	Dates Funded	Total Funded (dollars)
Langston, Hiram	SA 4 Consultancy	Preparation of statement re: public smoking	unknown	2,500 est.
Lieberman, G. J.	SA 4 Consultancy	FDA/OC review	unknown	1,600
Macdonald, Eleanor	CTR Special Project	Regional patterns of cancer of major sites in five large regions of Texas and regional patterns of mortality in Houston, 1940–69 (study of factors associated with high cancer rates in states or regions of US)	1974–81	390,043
Macdonald, Eleanor	CTR Special Project	Completion and publication of book Cancer in Focus (tentative title)	1982	35,000
Mancuso, Thomas F.	CTR Special Project	Demographic studies of mortality in Ohio (step-by-step progression of identification of high-risk population subgroups and attempts to determine specific causes for high risk)	1975–76	38,700
Mancuso, Thomas F.	CTR Special Project	Low-level radiation study	1979	10,000
Meckler Engineers Group	SA 4 Research Project	Review of literature on ventilation/air quality models	1983–84	10,000
Meckler Engineers Group	SA 4 Research Project	Preparation of scientific reports on ventilation/air quality models for legislative and engineering forums	1984	60,000
Mello, Nancy/Mendelson, Jack	SA 4 Research Project	Review of scientific literature	1982–84	30,000
Micozzi, Marc	SA 4 Consultancy	Consultancy	1982	11,000
Moser, Kenneth	CTR Special Project	Investigation of potential role of polymorphonuclear leucocyte elastase concentration in pathogenesis of emphysema	1977–79	198,000
Moser, Kenneth M.	SA 4 Consultancy	Preparation of statement re: public smoking	unknown	15,100 est.
Niden, Albert	SA 4 Consultancy	Preparation of statement re: public smoking	unknown	2,500 est.
Nylander, Lee R.	SA 4 Consultancy	Preparation of statement re: public smoking for Chicago hearing 9/12/78	1978	3,129
O'Lane, John	SA 4 Consultancy	unknown	unknown	153
Oak Ridge National Laboratory	CTR Special Project	Methodology for quantitating exposure to inhalable ambient tobacco smoke	1985–87	855,000
Ogura, Joseph	CTR Special Project	Effects of tobacco and air pollution on the lung	1974–75	24,000
Okun, Ronald	SA 4 Consultancy	Preparation of statement re: public smoking	unknown	2,500 est.
Olkin, Ingram	SA 4 Consultancy	FDA/OC review	unknown	1,600

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TABLE 8.1 (continued)
Investigator	Type of Project	Project Title	Dates Funded	Total Funded (dollars)
Olkin, Ingram	CTR Special Project	A study of the models used in the analysis of certain medical data (review of the appropriateness of treating biomedical data with the multivariate techniques of assumed normality)	1976–78	12,000
Puglia, Charles/Roberts, Jay	CTR Special Project	Adaptation to components of tobacco smoke (a study of the response of the lung to oxidants contained in cigarette smoke; adaptation of the heart to nicotinic effects)	1979–80	44,014
Rao, L. G. S.	SA 4 Consultancy	Consultancy	unknown	2,500 est.
Rao, L. G. S.	CTR Special Project	Research relating to correlation of plasma steroid levels in urine of lung cancer patients and controls	1974–77	30,000
Rao, L. G. S.	SA 4 Research Project	Research related to effects of maternal smoking during pregnancy.	1977–86	455,000
Ratcliff, Herbert	CTR Special Project	Cardiopulmonary lesions in zoo animals	1975–76	15,275
Response Analysis	SA 4 Research Project	The response of the nonsmoker to cigarette smoke and smoking behavior (survey of annoyances and irritations that are part of the everyday life of American adults)	1976	45,000
Rigdon, R. H.	SA 4 Consultancy	Consultancy	unknown	2,500 est.
Riley, Vernon	CTR Special Project	Three-year program of studies on stress physiology	1981–82	155,000
Spackman, Darrel (formerly Riley project)	CTR Special Project	Modified one-year proposal for studies on stress physiology	1982–83	86,000
Roberts, Jay	CTR Special Project	The effect of exposure to cigarette smoke on atrial and ventricular pace-maker activity	1982–83	49,511
Rothschild, Henry	CTR Special Project	Pilot study of disproportionately high mortality in respiratory tract cancer in southern Louisiana to determine if genetic and environmental factors are possible causes	1977–80	79,328
Rothschild, Henry	CTR Special Project	Genetic aspects of lung cancer	1982–88	160,705

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Investigator	Type of Project	Project Title	Dates Funded	Total Funded (dollars)
Russek, Henry/Russek, Linda	CTR Special Project	Behavior patterns and strategies for the mastery of stress, anxiety reduction, and perceptual functioning (a comparison of the efficacy of different methods of relaxation in the face of stress; differences between Type A and Type B individuals)	1979–81	48,500
Russek, Linda	SA 4 Research Project (Also listed as SH&B Research Project)	Follow-up study of Harvard alumni and their psychological and physiological profiles	1984–86	50,000
Salvaggio, John	CTR Special Project	Investigation of physical, chemical, and immuno-chemical properties of components present in tobacco smoke	1976–81	283,777
Salvaggio, John/Lehrer, Samuel	CTR Special Project	Provocative inhalation challenge testing: the exposure of "smoke-sensitive" individuals to the actual inhalation of sidestream tobacco smoke	1981–83	132,664
Salvaggio, John/Lehrer, Samuel	CTR Special Project	The pulmonary effects of passive cigarette smoke exposure on atopic smoke-sensitive asthmatics	1985–88	263,117
Savage, I. Richard	SA 4 Consultancy	FDA/OC review	unknown	1,720
Schilling, R.	SA 4 Consultancy	unknown	unknown	1,685
Schrauzer, Gerhard N.	SA 4 Consultancy	Preparation of statement re: public smoking	unknown	2,500 est.
Schrauzer, Gerhard N.	CTR Special Project	Determination of selenium concentration and nature in tobacco products and tobacco smoke	1981–83	20,000
Schrauzer, Gerhard N.	CTR Special Project	Statistical and epidemiological studies on the etiology of lung cancer	1983–85	30,000
Seltzer, Carl	CTR Special Project	Constitutional differences between smokers and nonsmokers	1976–87; 1989–90	650,000; 70,000 pending
Seltzer, Carl	SA 4 Consultancy	Preparation of statement re: public smoking	unknown	2,500 est.
Seltzer, Carl	SA 4 Consultancy	Continuing consultancy based on specific projects	unknown	per diem
Seltzer, Carl	SA 4 Research Project	Examination of Kaiser-Permanente data on ex-smokers' CHD rates in relation to continuing smokers' CHD rates	1978–79	7,000
Seltzer, Carl/van den Berg, Bea	CTR Special Project	Study of smoker/nonsmoker differences	1981–89	597,000
Senkus, Murray	SA 4 Consultancy	Consultancy	1981–82	62,400

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TABLE 8.1 (continued)
Investigator	Type of Project	Project Title	Dates Funded	Total Funded (dollars)
Solmon, Lewis	SH&B Research Project	Preparation of a review paper on smoking and absenteeism in the workplace	1986–87	8,000
Spielberger, Charles	SA 4 Research Project	The origins and correlates of smoking behavior—attempt to replicate major findings from laboratory work of Dr. Eysenck relating to origins and maintenance of smoking behavior with American subjects	1978–83	172,381
Stanford Research Institute	SA 4 Research Project	Develop unobtrusive instrument package for analyses of atmospheric carbon monoxide, nicotine, and total suspended particulate matter (suitcase air-monitoring device)	1976	172,400
Stedman, R. L.	SA 4 Consultancy	Consultancy/preparation of statement re: public smoking	unknown	2,500 est.
Stein, Arthur	SA 4 Consultancy	Review of public smoking bill	unknown	500
Sterling, Theodor	CTR Special Project	A continuing critical review of the major factors in the etiology of lung cancer and other lung diseases emerging from statistical studies	1973–90	5,214,253
Sterling, Theodor	CTR Special Project	Evaluation of the interaction between geographical, geocultural, smoking, and health variables and indices	1979–81	54,710
Sterling, Theodor	CTR Special Project	The study of architectural, ventilation, and lighting factors in relation to office building illness	1981–83	207,913
Sterling, Theodor	SA 4 Research Project	Critical assessment of draft OTA [Office of Technology Assessment] report "Smoking-Related Deaths and Financial Costs"	1985	42,000
Sterling, Theodor	SA 4 Research Project	Critical evaluation of current environmental tobacco smoke health risk models	1985	49,720
Sterling, Theodor D.	SA Consultancy	Preparation of statements re: public smoking	unknown	7,520 est.

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Investigator	Type of Project	Project Title	Dates Funded	Total Funded (dollars)
Sterling, Theodor/ Perry, Harold/ Glicksman, Arvin	CTR Special Project	Retrospective analysis of environmental contacts of patients with respiratory cancer, other cancers, and other diseases	1979–82	235,686
Valentin, Helmut	SA 4 Consultancy	Preparation of paper re: literature review on public smoking and health	unknown	4,000
Wakefield, James A.	CTR Special Project	(1) Preliminary study of interrelationships and causal paths linking smoking, personality, and health variables; and (2) assessment of the relationship between methodological quality of previous smoking and health studies and their results	1985–87	76,000
Washington University	Other Special Project	Funding for the cancer immunology laboratories	1984–91	2,200,000
Zeidman, Irving	SA 4 Consultancy	Analysis and evaluation of literature primarily in the lung cancer area	1983	7,500
NOTE : This table represents a compilation of the special projects and consultancies funded by the tobacco industry from 1972 to 1991. As described in this chapter, special projects and consultancies were funded either through the Council for Tobacco Research (CTR) or through the law firms of Jacob and Medinger (Special Account 4, SA 4) or Shook, Hardy, and Bacon (SH&B). The table is based on a series of pages in the documents that appear to have been compiled by and for lawyers; many pages are marked "Confidential—For Counsel Use Only." This table probably does not list all the special projects and consultancies that have been funded by the tobacco industry, because it began funding CTR special projects in 1966, and our table begins in 1972. The information in the documents suggests, however, that the tobacco industry spent more than $20 million on special projects and consultancies from 1972 to 1991.
SOURCE : Compiled from {2048.01} through {2048.29}.

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