1. See Xu Zhuoyun (Hsu Cho-yun) and Qiu Hongda (Chiu Hongdah), eds., Kangzhan shengli de daijia (Taibei: Lianjing chuban shiye gongsi, 1986), pp. 16, 185. And Dick Wilson, When Tigers Fight: The Story of the Sino-Japanese War, 1937-1945 (Harmondsworth, Eng.: Penguin Books, 1983), p. 1. [BACK]

2. Quoted from Immanuel Hsu, The Rise of Modern China, 4th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 611. [BACK]

3. Carl von Clausewitz, On War, ed. and trans. Michael Howard and Peter Paret (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976), p. 77. [BACK]

4. Zheng Zhenduo, "Shao shu ji," in Zheju sanji (Shanghai: Shanghai chuban gongsi, 1951), p. 48; see also Zheng, "Shi shu ji," Fenghuo 9 (31 October 1937): 1-2. [BACK]

5. Zheng, "Shi shu ji," p. 2. [BACK]

6. Zheng described this morally and intellectually exhilarating experience in his book Jie zhong de shu ji (Shanghai: Gudian wenxue chubanshe, 1956). [BACK]

7. See Chen Fukang, Zheng Zhenduo nianpu (Beijing: Shumu wenxian chubanshe, 1988), p. 286. The proposal, which was sent by Zheng and others like Zhang Jusheng of the Commercial Press in early January 1940, received endorsement from the Nationalists, but predictably with no promise of financial assistance from the government. [BACK]

8. Yuanxin (Zheng Zhenduo), "Baowei minzu wenhua yundong," Wenyi zhendi 5.1 (16 July 1940): 3. Zheng's efforts earned high praise among his friends. See Wenchao yuekan 1.3 (1 July 1946): 161. [BACK]

9. Guo Moruo, "Lixing yu shouxing zhi zhan," Wenhua zhanxian 1 (1 September 1937): 7. [BACK]

10. Such an argument is certainly not new. European history is full of similar analogies. War was often portrayed as a cosmic drama, a battle between life and death, a clash between the Apollonian spirit and the irrational, destructive Dionysian force. See Modris Eksteins, Rites of Spring: The Great War and the Birth of Modern Age (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989); and Sam Keen, Faces of the Enemy: Reflections of the Hostile Imagination (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1986), p. 122. [BACK]

11. Changjiang, "Jianli xinwen jizhe de zhengque zuofeng." [BACK]

12. Bu Shaofu, Zhandi jizhe jianghua, p. 12. [BACK]

13. Guo Moruo, "Kangzhan song," Kangzhan sanrikan 1 (19 August 1937): 3. [BACK]

14. Zang Kejia, "Chule kangzhan shenme dou mei yiyi," p. 37. Zang described his joy when he heard about the coming of the war. [BACK]

15. See Wenxue chuangzuo 1.3 (15 November 1942), "Editorial" (paraphrased). [BACK]

16. Gu Jiegang, "Xisheng," Dazhong zhishi 1.3 (20 November 1936): 15. [BACK]

17. Such euphoria was similar to the enthusiasm with which many European intellectuals greeted the outbreak of the war in 1914. See Robert Wohl, The Generation of 1914 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979), pp. 216-217. [BACK]

18. Quoted in Dryden L. Phelps, "Letters and Arts in the War Years," in China, ed. Harley F. MacNair (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1946), p. 409. [BACK]

19. Liu Shi, Jietou jianghua (N.p.: Shenghuo shudian, 1936); Xu Maoyong, Jietou wentan (1936; Shanghai: Guangming shuju, 1946). [BACK]

20. Liu Shi, Jietou jianghua, pp. ii, 3. [BACK]

21. Qu Qiubai, Jietou ji (Shanghai: Xia she, 1940). Qu Qiubai was critical of the vernacular language advocated by May Fourth scholars such as Hu Shi. Ridiculing it as too "Europeanized," he believed this vernacular language to be too sophisticated, its meanings and vocabulary too foreign to be comprehended by the general public. A new proletarian "common language," he said, based partly on traditional popular literature such as storytelling and historical novels but largely on the language of the working class, should be created to meet the demands of the general population. This language was the language of the street. Qu's experimentation with this "new" language resulted in a series of storytelling-type popular essays written mostly in the early 1930s, which were published in 1940 as Jietou ji. Qu's idealistic goal was never realized, however, because nobody, including Qu, spelled out exactly what this new language should be, how it should be written, and what it should include. Nevertheless, the search for a language comprehensible to the masses continued to occupy the minds of many left-wing intellectuals. [BACK]

22. For example, Cao Bohan suggested launching a "Street Culture Movement" ( Jietou wenhua yundong ), a large-scale grass-roots education campaign to teach the populace patriotic songs and basic defensive techniques against the Japanese. See Cao, Jietou bibao, pp. 16-19, esp. p. 19. [BACK]

23. This quotation was borrowed from James Wilkinson; see his The Intellectual Resistance in Europe (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), p. 263. The situation in Europe was in many ways highly reminiscent of that in China, as this quotation shows. [BACK]

24. See Hong Shen, Kangzhan shinian lai, pp. 21, 93; and Tian Qin, Zhongguo xiju yundong, p. 89. [BACK]

25. Feng Yuxiang, Kang-Ri de weida minzhong, "Preface." [BACK]

26. See Chang-tai Hung, Going to the People, esp. chap. 7. [BACK]

27. See, for example, Guo Moruo, Zhanshi xuanchuan gongzuo (N.p.: Zhongyang lujun junguan xuexiao, 1938), pp. 29-30; Mao Dun, "Dazhonghua yu liyong jiu xingshi," Wenyi zhendi 1.4 (1 June 1938): 121; Wenxue chuangzuo 1.3 (15 November 1942), "Editorial"; and Yao Qingzeng, Kangzhan geyan ji (Chongqing: Zhongshan wenhua jiaoyuguan, 1938). [BACK]

28. See discussion in David Parkin, "Political Language," Annual Review of Anthropology 18 (1984): 353. [BACK]

29. See, for example, Wen Zaidao et al., Biangu ji, pp. 265-267. Zhou Li'an, Huafa ji, pp. 110, 127. [BACK]

30. See Ge Yihong, Zhanshi yanju zhengce, p. 31. [BACK]

31. Liang Shiqiu, "Bianzhe de hua," Zhongyang ribao, 1 December 1938, p. 4. [BACK]

32. For the furor created by this incident, see Zhongguo kang-Ri zhanzheng shiqi dahoufang wenxue shuxi 2:131-171. Liang's statement was repeatedly and unfairly criticized by Communist writers. Recently, the writer Ke Ling finally came to his defense, arguing that Liang's proposal was a reasonable one. Ke Ling attacked the notion of "total submission to the War of Resistance" as "a narrow and mechanical approach." See Ke Ling, Wenyuan manyoulu (Hong Kong: Sanlian shudian, 1988), pp. 124-125, 309. [BACK]

33. Shen Congwen, "Yiban huo teshu," in Zhongguo kang-Ri zhanzheng shiqi dahoufang wenxue shuxi 2:142-146. [BACK]

34. Wang Liaoyi, Long chong bing diao zhai suoyu (Shanghai: Guancha she, 1949), pp. 4-5. [BACK]

35. See Hong Shen, Kangzhan shinian lai, p. 169. [BACK]

36. See above, chapter 5, note 114 with associated quote. [BACK]

37. Wenxue chuangzuo 1.3 (15 November 1942), "Editorial." [BACK]

38. Quoted in Hong Shen, Kangzhan shinian lai, p. 87. [BACK]

39. See my discussion in Going to the People, pp. 12-15. [BACK]

40. See, for example, Xu Zhengrong, "Dao neidi qu," JWRB, 14 October 1937, p. 4; "Dao nongcun qu" (To the village), Dongfang zazhi 34.14 (16 July 1937): n.p. [BACK]

41. Quoted in Leo Ou-fan Lee, "Literary Trends: The Road to Revolution, 1927-1949," in Cambridge History of China, vol. 13, pt. 2, pp. 453-454. [BACK]

42. See Wang Yao, Zhongguo xinwenxue shigao 2:441-452. Interview with Wu Zuxiang, 4 November 1989, Beijing. [BACK]

43. Tian Qin, Zhongguo xiju yundong, p. 91. [BACK]

44. Ge Yihong, Zhanshi yanju zhengce, pp. 23-24. Interview with Ge Yihong, 28 September, 20 October, and 4 November 1989, Beijing. [BACK]

45. Hong Shen, Kangzhan shinian lai, pp. 83-88 (paraphrased). [BACK]

46. XJSD 1.1 (16 May 1937): 30; see also pp. 8, 19, 20-21, 22, 29. [BACK]

47. See Zhang Jinglu, ed., Zhongguo xiandai chuban shiliao 3:32-33. [BACK]

48. Ibid., pp. 33-34. [BACK]

49. Gan Yunheng, "Kangzhan shiqi de shige zhongxin huodong," in Kangzhan yu yishu, p. 33. [BACK]

50. For the Chinese Communists' anti-urban legacy, see Maurice Meisner, Marxism, Maoism, and Utopianism (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982), esp. chaps. 2 and 3. [BACK]

51. See Keith M. Baker, "Introduction," in Baker, ed., The French Revolution and the Creation of Modern Political Culture, p. xii. [BACK]

52. For the repeated use of these terms, see Zhang Geng, ed., Yanggeju xuan, pp. 21 ( xin shehui ), 289 ( jiu shehui ), 296 ( shoukuren and dangjiaren ), 16 and 45 ( laodong ), 11 and 50 ( shengchan ), 8 and 127 (the Eighth Route Army), 62 and 225 (the Chinese Communist Party). Communist songs also abound with these terms. See, for example, Kang-Ri zhanzheng gequ xuanji, 4 vols. (Beijing: Zhongguo qingnian chubanshe, 1957). [BACK]

53. See Zhang Geng, ed., Yanggeju xuan; and Kang-Ri zhanzheng gequ xuanji. [BACK]

54. On social reforms in the border regions, see Mark Selden, The Yenan Way in Revolutionary China (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971); on the Party's organizational strength, see Tetsuya Kataoka, Resistance and Revolution in China: The Communists and the Second United Front (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1974), esp. pp. 300-301. [BACK]