1. See, for example, Hong Shen, Kangzhan shinian lai, pp. 4-7; KZWYYJ 8 (1983): 24-32, and 9 (1983): 68-78; and ZGHJYD 1:218-241. [BACK]

2. See Hong Shen, Kangzhan shinian lai, p. 12. [BACK]

3. See Liang Bing, "Kaifeng jiuwang juyun de yipie," JWRB, 27 April 1938, p. 3; Dongfang huakan (The eastern pictorial) 1.4 (July 1938): n.p.; ZGHJYD 1:261-269; KZWYYJ 11 (1983): 69-74, 49, and 13 (1984): 86-97; Guo Moruo, Hongbo qu (Hong Kong: Yixin shudian, n.d.), pp. 44-45, 93. Many children's traveling drama corps were formed during the war, including the Xiamen Children's National Salvation Drama Corps (Xiamen ertong jiuwang jutuan), which traveled to Guangdong, Guangxi, and Vietnam to perform. See Zhandi tongxun (Battlefront correspondence) 3.8 (16 April 1940): 8-10. [BACK]

4. The exact number of drama clubs and people involved is not known. According to one estimate, as many as 130,000 people took part; see Wang Yao, Zhongguo xin wenxue shigao, 2 vols. (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1982), 2:488. Tian Han estimated that in 1942 there were about 2,500 dramatic clubs in China, each with some thirty members on average, which amounted to approximately 75,000 participants in this movement; see ZGHJYD 1:231. These figures, of course, are rough estimates. [BACK]

5. See Ge Yihong, Zhanshi yanju zhengce (Shanghai: Shanghai zazhi gongsi, 1939), p. 23; Zheng Junli, Lun kangzhan xiju yundong (N.p.: Shenghuo shudian, 1939), p. 12. [BACK]

6. See Chang-tai Hung, Going to the People, esp. chap. 7. [BACK]

7. See Wen Zhenting, ed., Wenyi dazhonghua wenti taolun ziliao (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1987); also Qu Qiubai, Qu Qiubai wenji, 4 vols. (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1953-1954), esp. 2:853-916. [BACK]

8. Xiong Foxi detailed his experiment in Dingxian, especially in the villages of Dongbuluogang and Dongjianyang, in his books Xiju dazhonghua zhi shiyan and Guodu ji qi yanchu, both published by Zhengzhong shudian (n.p.) in 1947. [BACK]

9. Tian Qin, Zhongguo xiju yundong, p. 88. [BACK]

10. Xiong Foxi, "Zhengzhi, jiaoyu, xiju, sanwei yiti," Xiju gangwei 1.1 (15 April 1939): 3-5. [BACK]

11. See Xiong Foxi, Xiju dazhonghua zhi shiyan and Guodu ji qi yanchu. See also Yang Cunbin's account in Yue bao 1.3 (15 March 1937): 667-674. [BACK]

12. Xiong Foxi, "Zenyang zuoxi yu zenyang kanxi," Yue bao 1.4 (15 April 1937): 896. [BACK]

13. Liu Cunren, "Jin shinian lai woguo huaju yundong de niaokan," p. 3074. [BACK]

14. See Wang Yao, Zhongguo xin wenxue shigao 2:362. [BACK]

15. George E. Taylor, Japanese-sponsored Regime in North China (New York: Garland, 1980), p. 38. [BACK]

16. Zhang Junxin, "Zai xiangxia yanju," in Kangzhan de jingyan yu jiaoxun, ed. Qian Jiaju, Hu Yuzhi, and Zhang Tiesheng (N.p.: Shenghuo shudian, 1939), pp. 190-191. [BACK]

17. See, for example, Liu Jian, "Ruhe shi huaju shenru dao nongcun qu," Kangzhan xiju 2.2-3 (May 1938): 80-81. [BACK]

18. See "Yidong yanju yundong teji," GM 3.3 (10 July 1937): 189-190. [BACK]

19. Baqian li lu yun he yue—Yanju jiudui huiyilu, ed. Yanju jiudui duishi bianji weiyuanhui (Shanghai: N.p., n.d. [epilogue dated 1988]), p. 37. [BACK]

20. Hong Shen, "Kangzhan shiqi zhong de xiju yundong," Xiju kangzhan 1.1 (16 November 1937): 2-4, esp. p. 4. [BACK]

21. Hong Shen, Kangzhan shinian lai, p. 33. [BACK]

22. See GM 2.12 (25 May 1937): 1561. [BACK]

23. Zhou Gangming, "Lun xian jieduan de yanju yishu," Wenyi zhendi 5.1 (16 July 1940): 64-76. [BACK]

24. Quoted in Hong Shen, Kangzhan shinian lai, p. 91. [BACK]

25. Quoted in Colin Mackerras, "Theater and the Masses," in Chinese Theater: From Its Origins to the Present Day, ed. Colin Mackerras (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1983), p. 153. [BACK]

26. See, for example, Lin Jing, "Zai xiangcun zhong yanju de liangzhong zaoyu," in Qian, Zhu, and Zhang, eds., Kangzhan de jingyan yu jiaoxun, pp. 252-253. [BACK]

27. Hong Shen, Kangzhan shinian lai, pp. 17-18. [BACK]

28. The origin of the terms huo de baozhi and huobao (both mean "living newspaper") is not clear. It might have come from the Soviet Union in the early 1930s. See David Holm, Art and Ideology in Revolutionary China (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), p. 25. [BACK]

29. See Kangzhan sanrikan 6 (6 September 1937): 11-12, esp. p. 11. [BACK]

30. ZGHJYD 1:257. [BACK]

31. Guangweiran, "Lun jietouju," Xin xueshi 2.2 (25 October 1937): 86. [BACK]

32. Interview with Lü Fu, 24 October 1989, Beijing. See also Chen Yongliang, "Xiezuo jietouju zhi guanjian," Zhongyang ribao, 23 September 1938, p. 4; Zhao Qingge, Kangzhan xiju gailun (Chongqing: Zhongshan wenhua jiaoyuguan, 1939), p. 28. [BACK]

33. Ma Yanxiang, ed., Zuijia kangzhan juxuan (Hankou: Shanghai zazhi gongsi, 1938), p. 194. [BACK]

34. Richard Schechner, The End of Humanism: Writings on Performance (New York: Performing Arts Journal Publications, 1982), p. 119. [BACK]

35. The authorship of the play has long been disputed, though Chen Liting is now widely recognized as the original author. Interview with Ge Yihong, 20 October 1989, Beijing; and with Lü Fu, 24 October 1989, Beijing. Because many people had a hand in rewriting it, however, the play often appears listed as a "collective work." [BACK]

36. See Tian Han's own account in his "Zhongguo huaju yishu fazhan de jinglu he zhanwang," in ZGHJYD 1:67. See also Chen Baichen, Shaonian xing, p. 145. Chen was Tian Han's student. [BACK]

37. Materials about this play are abundant. See, for example, GM 2.10 (25 April 1937): 1407-1413; ZGHJYD 1:7, 228-229, and 2:107-108. Photographs of a performance appear in Dongfang zazhi 34.4 (16 February 1937); and Wenxian 4 (10 January 1939): A1. [BACK]

38. Interview with Chen Liting, 17 November 1989, Shanghai. See also Ding Yanzhao, " Fangxia nide bianzi dansheng, liuchuan he yanbian," Shanghai xiju 101 (28 April 1986): 30-31. [BACK]

39. Ibid. [BACK]

40. Interviews with Xie Bingying, 21 August 1989, San Francisco; Chen Liting, 17 November 1989, Shanghai; and Lü Fu, 24 October 1989, Beijing. Many actors had performed in Lay Down Your Whip, but the memorable performances of drama activist Cui Wei as the old man and the popular actress Zhang Ruifang (1918-) as the distressed Fragrance, at Fragrant Hill (Xiangshan) in Beijing in April 1937, were best remembered. See GM 2.10 (25 April 1937): 1407-1413. [BACK]

41. You Jing (Yu Ling), ed., Dazhong juxuan (Hankou: Shanghai zazhi gongsi, 1938), pp. 21-22. [BACK]

42. Liang Guozhang, "'Yanju qingqidui' chuanguo le zhandi," XJCQ 2.1 (25 May 1942): 62-64. [BACK]

43. Baoluo, "Zhankai xiju de youjizhan," Kangzhan xiju 1.1 (16 November 1937): 6-9. [BACK]

44. Liu Nianqu, "Wo xiang liudong yanjudui jianyi," Kangzhan xiju 1.2 (1 December 1937): 39-40. [BACK]

45. For one of many articles on this subject, see Lin Fei, "Yanju yu guanzhong," JWRB, 28 April 1938, p. 4. [BACK]

46. Susanne K. Langer, Feeling and Form (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1953), p. 306. [BACK]

47. Chen Yongliang, "Yanchu jietouju ersan shi," Zhongyang ribao, 7 October 1938, p. 4. [BACK]

48. Guangweiran called this a "natural stage"; see his "Jietouju de yanchu fangfa," DGB (Hankou), 17 December 1937, p. 4. [BACK]

49. The play's popularity extended to other media as well, notably photographs; see, for example, Dongfang zazhi 34.4 (16 February 1937): cover inside page; Kangzhan xiju 1.1 (16 November 1937): back cover. In 1940 the celebrated painter Xu Beihong captured vividly the performance of Fragrance on his canvas, using actress Wang Ying as his model. Wang Ying even brought the famous street play to the White House at the invitation of President Franklin D. Roosevelt when she toured the United States in 1942, creating quite a sensation in a foreign land. See the subsequent report in Dianying yu xiju 1 (January 1947): 32. There are numerous eyewitness accounts and reports about the enormous success of Lay Down Your Whip during the war. A few examples will suffice: interviews with Ge Yihong, 28 September, 20 October 1989, Beijing; and with Lü Fu, 24 October 1989, Beijing. See also Dongfang zazhi 40.8 (30 April 1944): 58. [BACK]

50. Wang Yao, Zhongguo xin wenxue shigao 2:364. [BACK]

51. Ding Yanzhao, " Fangxia nide bianzi dansheng, liuchuan he yanbian," p. 31. See also XWXSL 13 (22 November 1981): 216-227, esp. p. 223. [BACK]

52. See Yang Hansheng, Fengyu wushinian (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1986), p. 181. [BACK]

53. I did not see the script; Chen Liting (interview, 17 November 1989, Shanghai) and Yu Ling (interview, 23 November 1989, Shanghai) mentioned this version to me. [BACK]

54. See Shen Xiling et al., Jietou yanju (N.p.: Guofang xiju yanjiuhui, 1938); A Ying, ed., Kangzhan dumuju xuan (N.p.: Kangzhan duwu chubanshe, 1937); and Ma Yanxiang, ed., Zuijia kangzhan juxuan. [BACK]

55. The play, which was based on Lady Gregory's The Rising of the Moon, was written collectively by Lü Fu, Shu Qiang, Wang Yi, and Xu Zhiqiao. See Baqian li lu yun he yue, p. 462; also interview with Lü Fu, 20 October 1989, Beijing. [BACK]

56. The Last Stratagem is said to be based on a foreign play, but I have been unable to trace its origin. The play was reportedly rewritten by Qu Baiyin (1910-); see Zhongguo kang-Ri zhanzheng shiqi dahoufang wenxue shuxi, 20 vols. (Chongqing: Chongqing chubanshe, 1989), 17:2242. Hong Shen and Xu Xuan also rewrote the play and gave it a new title, Sili qiusheng (From the jaws of death); see esp. p. 1 of the published version (N.p.: Shenghuo shudian, 1938). [BACK]

57. ZGHJYD 1:7, 237; XJCQ 2.3 (10 September 1942): 4; Baqian li lu yun ye yue, passim. [BACK]

58. See Lü Fu, ''Kangdi yanjudui wushi zhounian zuotanhui qianyan," unpublished paper, 5 October 1988, Wuhan, pp. 8-9 [BACK]

59. See, for example, a report in Zhandi (Battlefront) 4 (5 May 1938): 114-115. See also Shen Xiling et al., Jietou yanju, p. 40. [BACK]

60. See, for example, "Editorial," Wenxue chuangzuo 1.6 (1 April 1943), and p. 119. [BACK]

61. Interview with Lü Fu, 24 October 1989, Beijing. See also Kangzhan sanrikan 2 (23 August 1937): 9. [BACK]

62. Liu Jian, "Ruhe shi huaju shenru dao nongcun qu," p. 80. [BACK]

63. Edgar A. Mowrer, The Dragon Wakes: A Report from China (New York: William Morrow, 1939), pp. 166-167. [BACK]

64. Karl Chia Chen, "The Undeclared War and China's New Drama," Theatre Arts 23.12 (December 1939): 899. [BACK]

65. ZGHJYD 2:168-201. See also XJSD 1.2 (1 January 1944): 8. [BACK]

66. Interview with Ge Yihong, 20 October 1989, Beijing; and with Lü Fu, 24 October 1989, Beijing. See also Tian Qin, "Zhongguo zhanshi xiju chuangzuo zhi yanbian," Dongfang zazhi 40.4 (29 February 1944): 53-57, esp. p. 56. [BACK]

67. The literature on male warriors in wartime dramas is abundant, but a comprehensive picture necessitates more research. [BACK]

68. Turner, Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors, p. 96. [BACK]

69. Song Zhidi, "Xiezuo Wu Zetian de zibai," GM 3.1 (10 June 1937): 44. [BACK]

70. Ouyang Yuqian, Pan Jinlian (Shanghai: Xindongfang shudian, 1928), pp. 3-4. [BACK]

71. ZGHJYD 1:119-120. [BACK]

72. What is stated here is the prevailing attitude toward women that persisted in Chinese culture from Confucian times well into the twentieth century. The present author is well aware that various, and often conflicting, images of women were held in traditional China. One finds, as Margery Wolf and Roxane Witke point out, "evidence for a Chinese conception of women as weak, timid, and sexually exploitable as well as dangerous, powerful, and sexually insatiable" (Wolf and Witke, eds., Women in Chinese Society [Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1975], p. 2). [BACK]

73. Ouyang Yuqian, Huaju, xingeju yu Zhongguo xiju yishu chuantong (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1959), p. 12; Yang Hansheng, "Zhongguo xiju zhong de xinjiu nüxing," Wencui 1.6 (13 November 1945): 18-21. [BACK]

74. In addition to Zeng Pu's novel, Liu Fu's famous interview with Sai, as well as other sources, inspired Xia Yan's play. See Xia Yan, "Sai Jinhua," Wenxue 6.4 (1 April 1936): 590. [BACK]

75. See GM 2.7 (10 March 1937): 1263-1264. [BACK]

76. Xia Yan, Lan xun jiu meng lu, p. 328. [BACK]

77. GM 2.12 (25 May 1937): 1546-1550. [BACK]

78. Ouyang Yuqian, Taohua shan (Beijing: Zhongguo xiju chubanshe, 1957), p. 5. [BACK]

79. Wen Zaidao et al., Biangu ji (Shanghai: Yingshang wenhui youxian gongsi, 1938), p. 248. [BACK]

80. A Ying, Bixue hua (Beijing: Zhongguo xiju chubanshe, 1957); idem, Yang E zhuan (Shanghai: Chenguang chuban gongsi, 1950); Bi Yao, "Qin Liangyu," in Guofang xiju xuan (N.p.: n.p., n.d.); Yang Cunbin, Qin Liangyu (N.p.: Sichuan shengli xiju jiaoyu shiyan xuexiao bianzuan weiyuanhui, 1940); Gu Zhongyi, Liang Hongyu (Shanghai: Kaiming shudian, 1941); Zhou Jianchen, Liang Hongyu (N.p.: Xinyi shudian, 1940); Zhou Yibai, Hua Mulan (Shanghai: Kaiming shudian, 1941); Ouyang Yuqian, "Mulan congjun," Wenxian 6 (10 March 1939): F1-F31; idem, Liang Hongyu (Hankou: Shanghai zazhi gongsi, 1938). [BACK]

81. See also Edward Gunn's analysis of this play in Unwelcome Muse, esp. chap. 3. [BACK]

82. See Hong Shen, Kangzhan shinian lai, pp. 156-157. See also Zazhi 10.6 (10 March 1943): 92. Among the many enthusiastic reviews of the play was Shanghai shenghuo (Shanghai life), 3.11 (17 November 1939): 30. [BACK]

83. Jay Leyda, Dianying: An Account of Films and the Film Audience in China (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1972), p. 141. [BACK]

84. See Hong Shen, Kangzhan shinian lai, p. 161; also ZGHJYD 2:183; and Ying Sun, "Guanyu Mulan congjun, " Wenxian 6 (10 March 1939): F32-F35. [BACK]

85. Ouyang Yuqian, Dianying banlu chujia ji (Beijing: Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 1962), p. 36. [BACK]

86. Zhou Yibai, Hua Mulan, esp. act 4. See also Edward Gunn's description in Unwelcome Muse, pp. 125-126. [BACK]

87. Zazhi (Magazine) 15.5 (10 August 1945): 103-105. [BACK]

88. The unity and the strength of the people is again stressed in such plays as Gu Zhongyi's Liang Hongyu, esp. act 4. [BACK]

89. Other plays on the same theme include Zhao Ming's Mulan congjun ji (Mulan Joins the Army), mentioned in Baqian li lu yun he yue, pp. 383-384, 463; and in Shui Hua's Mulan congjun (Mulan Joins the Army), in ZGHJYD 2:213, 226. For more information, see Chang-tai Hung, "Female Symbols of Resistance in Chinese Wartime Spoken Drama," Modern China 15.2 (April 1989): 149-177, esp. p. 174, n. 5. An example of a cartoon on the theme is Feng Zikai's "A Modern-Day Hua Mulan," YZF 71 (16 July 1938): 230. And for a kuaiban, see Lao She, "Nü'er jing,'' in Lao She wenji, 14 vols. (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1980-1989), 13:55. An interesting article on the subject concerns a Hunanese girl, Tang Guilin, who disguised herself as a male soldier during the war; surprisingly, her identity was not discovered until a few years later. See Cao Juren, "Xiandai Mulan Tang Guilin de ceying," Zazhi 5.1 (16 June 1939): 56. [BACK]

90. Although patriotic courtesans and female warriors were the two major types of female symbols of resistance created during the war, they were by no means the only ones. Guo Moruo's Nie Ying, for example, belongs to neither category. A protagonist in Guo's five-act play Devoted Siblings (Tandi zhi hua, 1942), Nie Ying is a righteous woman of the Warring States period. She and her brother Nie Zheng together sacrifice their lives for the cause of unity in opposition to the tyranny of the Qin. There is definitely a contemporary ring in Guo's presentation. [BACK]

91. Interview with Xie Bingying, 20 November 1988, 21 August 1989, San Francisco. [BACK]

92. Hu Lanqi, Hu Lanqi huiyilu, vol. 2: 1936-1949 (Chengdu: Sichuan renmin chubanshe, 1987), esp. pp. 27-28. [BACK]

93. See Hu Lanqi, ed., Zhandi ernian (N.p.: Laodong funü zhandi fuwutuan, 1939), p. 8. [BACK]

94. Joan W. Scott, "Rewriting History," in Behind the Lines: Gender and the Two World Wars, ed. Margaret R. Higonnet et al. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), p. 30. [BACK]

95. Ying Sun, "Guanyu Mulan congjun. " [BACK]

96. A total of 627 titles with known publication dates are said to have been published during the war. In addition, there were 36 titles whose publication dates are unknown. Many titles, however, are collections of plays, and some titles appeared in more than one edition. See Qin Xianci, ed., Kangzhan shiqi wenxue shiliao, pp. 170-203. About 30 of these titles bear the names of patriotic courtesans, past female warriors, and modern women fighters. Another account gives the total number of plays produced as 989; this tally includes those that appeared in journals and magazines, but unfortunately no titles are given. See Zhongguo kang-Ri zhanzheng dahoufang wenxue shuxi 17:2244. [BACK]

97. There were other Hua Mulan plays that did not appear in print, such as those by Zhao Ming and Shui Hua (see above, n. 89). [BACK]

98. Yang Cunbin, Qin Liangyu, "Preface." [BACK]

99. Turner, Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors, p. 106. [BACK]

100. Jean Bethke Elshtain, "Women as Mirror and Other: Toward a Theory of Women, War, and Feminism," Humanities in History 5.2 (Winter-Spring 1982): 31-32. [BACK]

101. There are many studies on European and American women's active role during the two world wars, especially the second. See, for example, Margaret Weitz, "As I Was Then: Women in the French Resistance," Contemporary French Civilization 10.1 (1986): 1-19; Leila Rupp, Mobilizing Women for War: German and American Propaganda, 1939-1945 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978); and Higonnet et al., eds., Behind the Lines. Feminist scholarship has been particularly active in studying the relationship between the politics of gender and the politics of war. Feminist scholars argue that the two world wars provided opportunities for women to assume roles previously reserved for men. But since women were excluded from public power and combat roles in the military, the "changes in women's material conditions and cultural image seem ephemeral" (Higonnet et al., eds., Behind the Lines, p. 32). In America, Leila Rupp claims that World War II created only a temporary change in women's status. [BACK]

102. As in the West, the status of women changed little in wartime China. See Kay Ann Johnson, Women, the Family, and Peasant Revolution in China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), esp. chap. 2; Honig, Sisters and Strangers; and Ono Kazuko, Chinese Women in a Century of Revolution, 1850-1950, ed. Joshua A. Fogel (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989). [BACK]

103. For a discussion of the relationship between the image and reality of women in Chinese literature, see Anna Gerstlacher et al., eds., Woman and Literature in China (Bochum, W. Ger.: Brockmeyer, 1985). [BACK]

104. For a comparison of the symbol of Joan of Arc and that of Hua Mulan, see Chang-tai Hung, "Female Symbols of Resistance." [BACK]

105. Wang Ping, "Tian Han zai 'feixu shang,'" Juchang yishu 9 (20 July 1939): 14. [BACK]

106. "Special Issue on Historical Plays," XJCQ 2.4 (30 October 1942): 40-41. [BACK]

107. Ibid., p. 41. [BACK]

108. Ibid. [BACK]

109. Liu Yazi participated in this panel discussion but did not respond to the questions directly. He agreed to write a separate article addressing issues related to the discussion. This article appeared in the same issue of XJCQ. See Yazi (Liu Yazi), "Zatan lishiju," XJCQ 2.4 (30 October 1942): 49. [BACK]

110. XJCQ 2.4 (30 October 1942): 46. [BACK]

111. For other discussions, see, for example, He Fangyuan, "Lishiju lunzhan," Zazhi 13.2 (10 May 1944): 153-156; and Zazhi 12.5 (10 February 1944): 159-161. [BACK]

112. Wei Ruhui (A Ying), " Bixue hua renwu bukao," Wanxiang 1.1 (1 July 1941): 41-43. See also Liu Yazi, "Zatan A Ying xiansheng de Nan Ming shiju," Wenxue chuangzuo 1.2 (15 October 1942): 52-57. [BACK]

113. A Ying, Yang E zhuan, p. 16. [BACK]

114. Ouyang Yuqian, Huaju, xingeju yu Zhongguo xiju yishu chuantong, p. 9. [BACK]

115. See XJCQ 2.4 (30 October 1942): 41. Playwrights often found it difficult to authenticate characters and events in a historical play. Mulan Joins the Army is a case in point. Accounts of Hua Mulan's life are flimsy at best and perhaps even fabricated. She may have lived during the Tang dynasty or in the earlier Northern and Southern dynasties, as the famous "Poem of Mulan" suggested. Although we have sufficient evidence to prove that the Mulan legend had become quite popular by the Tang, the exact time when this legend started and how it grew are still not known. [BACK]

116. He Fangyuan, "Lishiju lunzhan," p. 153. [BACK]

117. See Zazhi 12.5 (10 February 1944): 159-161, esp. p. 160; Wenyi xianfeng 2.4 (20 April 1943): 5 [BACK]

118. Interview with Xia Yan, 16 October 1989, Beijing. [BACK]

119. Xia Yan, " Shanghai wuyan xia houji," in Hui Lin et al., Xia Yan yanjiu ziliao (Beijing: Zhongguo xiju chubanshe, 1983), p. 178. [BACK]

120. Zhang Geng, "Muqian juyun de jige dangmian wenti," GM 2.12 (25 May 1937): 1493. [BACK]

121. Tang Tao, Touying ji (Shanghai: Wenhua shenghuo chubanshe, 1940), p. 164. [BACK]

122. See Ouyang Yuqian, Huaju, xingeju yu Zhongguo xiju yishu chuantong; and idem, "Zaitan jiuxi de gaige," Shen bao zhoukan 2.7 (21 February 1937): 139-142; 2.8 (28 February 1937): 166-167; 2.12 (28 March 1937): 257-258. [BACK]

123. Kedward, Resistance in Vichy France, p. 211. [BACK]

124. Guo Moruo, "Tan lishiju" (On historical plays), quoted in Su Guangwen, Kangzhan wenxue gaiguan (Chongqing: Xinan shifan daxue, 1985), p. 166. [BACK]

125. On GMD censorship, see Lee-hsia Hsu Ting, Government Control of the Press in Modern China, 1900-1949 (Cambridge, Mass.: East Asian Research Center, Harvard University, 1974); see also Yiqun, "Yijiusier nian Yu Gui ge zhanqu juyun pingshu," Wenxue chuangzuo 1.6 (1 April 1943): 119-125. [BACK]

126. Tian Jin, "Kangzhan banian lai de xiju chuangzuo," Wenlian 1.3 (5 February 1946): 27. [BACK]

127. See Lan Hai, Zhongguo kangzhan wenyi shi (Ji'nan: Shandong wenyi chubanshe, 1984), p. 252. [BACK]

128. Tian Jin, "Kangzhan banian lai de xiju chuangzuo," p. 27. Chen Baichen gave slightly different statistics: historical plays composed 16 percent of all plays in the first period, and 34 percent in the second. See Wang Xunzhao et al., eds., Guo Moruo yanjiu ziliao, 3 vols. (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1986), 1:364. [BACK]

129. Tang Tao, Touying ji, p. 166. [BACK]

130. For one of numerous articles on Shi Kefa, see Wen Zaidao et al., Biangu ji, pp. 221-222. On Ma Shiying and Ruan Dacheng, see Tang Tao, Duan chang shu (Shanghai: Nanguo chubanshe, 1947), pp. 124-126, 155-170; interview with Tang Tao, 12 October 1989, Beijing. [BACK]

131. For Zhou Li'an's argument, see Wen Zaidao et al., Biangu ji, p. 198. [BACK]

132. Zhou Li'an, Huafa ji (Shanghai: Yuzhou feng she, 1940), p. 32. [BACK]

133. Interview with Wu Zuguang, 5 November 1987, Minneapolis. [BACK]

134. Xiong Foxi, Foxi lunju (Shanghai: Xinyue shudian, 1931), p. 148. [BACK]

135. Ding Ling, "Lüetan gailiang Pingju," Wenyi zhendi 2.4 (1 December 1938): 496. [BACK]

136. Xiang Peiliang, "Lun jiuju zhi buneng gailiang," Shen bao, 6 September 1935, p. 20. [BACK]

137. Xiong Foxi, "Wo duiyu chuangzao xingeju de yidian yijian," Yicong 1.2 (July 1943): 6. [BACK]

138. For Tian Han's argument, see, for example, Tian Han, Tian Han zhuanji (N.p.: Jiangsu renmin chubanshe, 1984), pp. 155, 163. See also Hong Shen, Kangzhan shinian lai, chap. 5; and Ouyang Yuqian, Huaju, xingeju yu Zhongguo xiju yishu chuantong. [BACK]

139. Ouyang Yuqian, "Zaitan jiuxi de gaige." [BACK]

140. Ouyang Yuqian, "Mingri de xingeju," XJSD 1.1 (16 May 1937): 70. [BACK]

141. Ouyang Yuqian yu Guiju gaige, ed. Guangxi yishu yanjiuyuan and Guangxi shehui kexueyuan (Nanning: Guangxi renmin chubanshe, 1986), esp. "Introduction," pp. 1-27. [BACK]

142. Ouyang Yuqian, "Zaitan jiuxi de gaige," p. 141. [BACK]

143. Ouyang, "Zaitan jiuxi de gaige." [BACK]

144. Ma Yanxiang, "Ruhe renshi difangju," Renmin wenyi 1.3 (15 March 1946): 60. [BACK]

145. See Hong Shen, Kangzhan shinian lai, p. 27. [BACK]

146. Ma Yanxiang, "Ruhe renshi difangju"; idem, "Duiyu jiuju de zai renshi," Beida banyuekan 6 (1 June 1948): 13-14, 17. [BACK]

147. See discussion in GM 1.8 (25 September 1936): 520. [BACK]

148. Ma Yanxiang, "Ruhe renshi difangju," pp. 60-61. [BACK]

149. Hong Shen, Kangzhan shinian lai, pp. 34-36. [BACK]

150. See ibid., chap. 5. See also Huang Zhigang, "Zenyang liyong difangxi zuo kangdi xuanchuan," Kangzhan yishu 1 (1 September 1939): 1-7. [BACK]

151. Hong Shen, Kangzhan shinian lai, pp. 40-41. [BACK]

152. Guo Moruo, Hongbo qu, p. 100. [BACK]

153. Tian Han, Yingshi zhuiyilu (Beijing: Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 1981), p. 54. [BACK]

154. Hong Shen, Kangzhan shinian lai, p. 38. [BACK]

155. See GM 3.3 (10 July 1937): 202. [BACK]

156. See Hong Shen, Kangzhan shinian lai, pp. 31-33. Even before the war broke out, Guan had donated his only property—an automobile—to the government on the fiftieth birthday of Generalissimo Jiang Jieshi. See "The Patriotic Actor Mr. Kuan Teh-shing [Guan Dexing]," Dongfang huakan (The eastern pictorial) 2.7 (October 1939): 32-33; and "The Kwangtung Dramatic Corps in the Philippines," Dongfang huakan 4.1 (April 1941): 32-33. [BACK]

157. Ma Yanxiang, "Jiuju kangzhan," KZWY 1.10 (25 June 1938): 127. [BACK]

158. Li Gongpu, "Yige zhanxin de gejudui," Quanmin kangzhan 69 (5 May 1939): 988-989. [BACK]

159. Li Puyuan, "Guanyu xiju de yige shiyan," Minyi zhoukan 9 (9 February 1938): 12. [BACK]

160. See Tian Han, Yingshi zhuiyilu, p. 54. [BACK]

161. XJCQ 2.3 (1 September 1942): 16-17. [BACK]

162. Ouyang Yuqian, "Gaige Guixi de buzhou," in Ouyang Yuqian yu Guiju gaige, p. 6. [BACK]