1. One model has already been proposed in Susan Sontag's brilliant polemic, Illness as Metaphor . In this work, Sontag assessed the important ways in which tuberculosis and cancer have been used as metaphors. Using techniques of literary analysis, she demonstrated prevailing cultural views of these diseases and their victims. See Sontag, Illness as Metaphor (New York: Vintage, 1978). [BACK]

2. The following discussion is abbreviated from my book, No Magic Bullet : A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880 , rev. ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987). [BACK]

3. On the problem of ophthalmia neonatorum, see Abraham L. Wolbarst, "On the Occurrence of Syphilis and Gonorrhea in Children by Direct Infection," American Medicine 7 (1912): 494; Carolyn Von Blarcum, "The Harm Done in Ascribing All Babies' Sore Eyes to Gonorrhea," American Journal of Public Health 6 (1916): 926-931; and J. W. Kerr, "Ophthalmia Neonatorum: An Analysis of the Laws and Regulations in Relation thereto in Force in the United States," Public Health Service Bulletin no. 49 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1914). [BACK]

4. Albert H. Burr, "The Guarantee of Safety in the Marriage Contract," Journal of the American Medical Association 47 (1906): 1887-1888. [BACK]

5. See Eugene Brieux, Damaged Goods , trans. John Pollack (New York:

Brentano's, 1913). On the critical reception of the play see "Demoralizing Plays," Outlook 150 (1913): 110; John D. Rockefeller, "The Awakening of a New Social Conscience," Medical Reviews of Reviews 19 (1913): 281; "Damaged Goods," Hearst ' s Magazine 23 (1913): 806; "Brieux's New Sociological Sermon in Three Acts,'' Current Opinion 54 (1913): 296-297. See also, Barbara Gutmann Rosenkrantz, "Damaged Goods: Dilemmas of Responsibility for Risk," Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 57 (1979): 1-37. [BACK]

6. Howard Kelly, "Social Diseases and Their Prevention," Social Diseases 1 (1910): 17, and "The Protection of the Innocent," American Journal of Obstetrics 55 (1907): 477-481. [BACK]

7. On prostitution during the Progressive era in America, see Paul S. Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978); Ruth Rosen, The Lost Sisterhood : Prostitution in America , 1900-1918 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982); and Mark Thomas Connely, The Response to Prostitution in the Progressive Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980). [BACK]

8. On nonvenereal transmission, see especially L. Duncan Bulkey, Syphilis of the Innocent (New York: Bailey and Fairchild, 1894). [BACK]

9. "What One Woman Has Had to Bear," Forum 68 (1912): 451-454. See also "New Laws About Drinking Cups," Life 58 (1911): 1152. [BACK]

10. The wartime policy for the attack on the red-light districts and the testing and incarceration of prostitutes is described in greater detail in Brandt, No Magic Bullet , 80-95. [BACK]

11. T. W. Gregory, "Memorandum on Legal Aspects of the Proposed System of Medical Examination of Women Convicted Under Section 13, Selective Service Act," National Archives, Washington, D.C., Record Group 90, Box 223. See also Mary Macey Dietzler, Detention Houses and Reformatories as Protective Social Agencies in the Campaign of the United States Government Against Venereal Diseases , United States Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1922). [BACK]

12. C. C. Pierce, "The Value of Detention as a Reconstruction Measure," American Journal of Obstetrics 80 (1919): 629. [BACK]

13. "AFRAIDS," New Republic , 14 October 1985, 7-9. See also Charles Krauthammer, "The Politics of a Plague," New Republic , 1 August 1983, 18-21. [BACK]

14. New York Times , 26 June 1985. [BACK]

15. Jay A. Winsten, "Fighting Panic on AIDS," New York Times , 26 July 1983. [BACK]

16. "The Fear of AIDS," Newsweek , 23 September 1985, 18-25. On the school controversy see New York Times , 13, 24 October 1985, and 8 December 1985. Also David J. Rothman, "Public Policy and Risk Assessment in the Case of AIDS," in AIDS : Public Policy Dimensions (New York: United Hospital Fund, 1986). [BACK]

17. Leon Eisenberg, "Private Trust/Public Confidence in Science and Medicine: The Genesis of Fear," Law , Medicine and Health Care 14 (1986): 243-249; Robert Balzell, "The History of an Epidemic," New Republic , 1 August 1983, 14-18; Richard Goldstein, "The Uses of AIDS," Village Voice , 5 November 1985, 25-27. [BACK]

18. "Fear and AIDS in Hollywood," People , 23 September 1985, 28-33; New York Times , 7 November 1985; Washington Post , 28 July 1985. [BACK]

19. Life , July 1985, 12-21. [BACK]

20. See Ronald Bayer, Homosexuality and American Psychiatry : The Politics of Diagnosis (New York: Basic Books, 1981). [BACK]

21. New York Post , 24 May 1983. [BACK]

22. Quoted in New York Times , 18 March 1986. [BACK]

23. Erving Goffman, Stigma : Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963). [BACK]

24. On the Justice Department ruling, see New York Times , 23, 27 June 1986; Wall Street Journal , 27 June 1986. [BACK]

25. New York Times , 26 June 1986. [BACK]

26. Charles Krauthammer, "Fear Him and Fire Him," Washington Post , 27 June 1986. [BACK]

27. New York Times , 1 July 1986. [BACK]

28. On military testing, see New York Times , 13 October 1985, 31 January, and 2 February 1986; Science 232 (16 May 1986): 818-820. The results of military screening have shown relatively high rates of infection. In Manhattan 2 percent of individuals applying to enter the service have been found to be infected; these numbers are fifteen to twenty times higher than the estimated national prevalence. [BACK]

29. Among those who have recommended mandatory screening for those at high risk are Lewis Kuller, professor of epidemiology at the University of Pittsburgh, and Paul Starr, professor of sociology at Princeton. See Chronicle of Higher Education , 4 June 1986. [BACK]

30. William F. Buckley, Jr., "Identify All the Carriers," New York Times , 18 March 1986. [BACK]

31. See, for example, Mark Senak, "Ban AIDS Blood Tests," New York Times , 27 May 1986. [BACK]

32. New York Times , 11 June 1986. See also the full-page advertisement of the American Council of Life Insurance and the Health Insurance Association of America, Washington Post , 11 May 1986. [BACK]

33. Quoted in Washington Post , 20 June 1986, and 28 June 1986. [BACK]

34. New York Times , 8 June and 10 January 1986, 3 November 1986; on the problem of financing AIDS see also George R. Seage, "The Medical Cost of Treatment of AIDS/ARC Patients," unpublished paper, Boston Department of Health and Hospitals, 12 May 1985; Philip R. Lee, "AIDS: Allocating Resources for Patient Care," Issues in Science and Technology 2 (1986): 66-73; and especially Rashi Fein, "AIDS and Economics," unpublished paper, AIDS Institute of the New York State Department of Health, 29 May 1986. [BACK]

35. Washington Post , 25 May 1983, 23 July 1985; New York Times , 15 June 1983, and 29 July, 24 October 1985; and especially, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Review of the Public Health Service ' s Response to AIDS : A Technical Memorandum , February 1985. [BACK]

36. Harvey V. Fineberg, "A Way to Tackle AIDS Education," New York Times , 13 July 1986; also Paul Cleary et al., "Health Education about AIDS," Health Education Quarterly 13 (Winter 1986): 317-330. [BACK]

37. New York Times , 6 July 1986. [BACK]

38. For an analysis of the difficult social policy questions raised by AIDS, see Ronald Bayer, "AIDS, Power, and Reason," Milbank Quarterly 64 (1986): 168-182. On legal issues see Harlon Dalton and Scott Burris, eds., AIDS and the Law (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987). [BACK]

39. See Leon Eisenberg, "Private Trust/Public Confidence in Science and Medicine: The Genesis of Fear," Law , Medicine , and Health Care 14 (1986): 243-249. [BACK]

40. Robin Marantz Henig, "AIDS: A New Disease's Deadly Odyssey," New York Times Magazine , 6 February 1983, 36. [BACK]

41. See, for example, John H. Knowles, "The Responsibility of the Individual," Daedalus 106 (1977): 68; and Robert Carlen, "Against Free Clinics for Sexually Transmitted Diseases," New England Journal of Medicine 307 (1982): 1350. [BACK]

42. Harry Dowling, Fighting Infection : Conquests of the Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1977), 228-250; New York Times , 23 January 1977. [BACK]