1. For a fascinating analysis of the history of cultural and scientific conceptions of syphilis, see Ludwig Fleck, Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact (1935; rpt. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979). [BACK]

2. For an excellent recent history of the controversies around venereal diseases in the United States, see Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet : A Social History of Venereal Diseases in the United States since 1880 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985). [BACK]

3. Scientific and Technical Societies of the United States and Canada , 8th ed. (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1968), 62. [BACK]

4. Edward H. Beardsley, "Allied against Sin: American and British Responses to Venereal Disease in World War I," Medical History 20 (1976): 194. [BACK]

5. As one widely reprinted article, said to have reached 8 million readers, described "The Enemy at Home": "The name of this invisible enemy is Venereal Disease—and there you have in two words the epitome of all that is unclean, malignant and menacing. . . . Gonorrhoea and syphilis are 'camp followers' where prostitution and alcohol are permitted. They form almost as great an enemy behind the lines as do the Huns in front." "V.D.: The Enemy at Home," cited by William H. Zinsser, "Social Hygiene and the War: Fighting Venereal Diseases a Public Trust,'' Social Hygiene 4 (1918): 519-520. [BACK]

6. In 1920 William Travis Howard, a member of the city health department, complained: "The Baltimore health department has never inaugurated a single administrative measure directed at the control of the venereal diseases . . . . The Baltimore health department has contented itself with receiving such reports as were made and with lending its power, when called upon, to force a few recalcitrant patients to appear at the venereal disease clinic established by the United States Government." William Travis Howard, Public Health Administration and the Natural History of Disease in Baltimore , Maryland , 1797-1920 (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution, 1924), 154-155. [BACK]

7. Baltimore City Health Department Annual Report (Baltimore, 1930). [BACK]

8. Taliaferro Clark and Lida Usilton, "Survey of the Venereal Diseases in the City of Baltimore, Baltimore County, and the Four Contiguous Counties," Venereal Disease Information 12 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Public Health Service, 20 October 1931), 437-456. [BACK]

9. Ferdinand O. Reinhard, director, Bureau of Vital Statistics, Baltimore, "Delinquent Patients in Venereal Disease Clinics: Result of a Study in Baltimore City Health Department," Journal of the American Medical Association 106 (1936): 1377-1390. [BACK]

10. Baltimore City Health Department Annual Report (Baltimore, 1932), 63.

11. Ibid., 62. [BACK]

10. Baltimore City Health Department Annual Report (Baltimore, 1932), 63.

11. Ibid., 62. [BACK]

12. Baltimore City Health Department Annual Report (Baltimore, 1933), 93.

13. Ibid., 97.

14. Ibid., 99. [BACK]

12. Baltimore City Health Department Annual Report (Baltimore, 1933), 93.

13. Ibid., 97.

14. Ibid., 99. [BACK]

12. Baltimore City Health Department Annual Report (Baltimore, 1933), 93.

13. Ibid., 97.

14. Ibid., 99. [BACK]

15. James H. Jones, Bad Blood : The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment (New York: Free Press, 1981), 16-29. The Tuskegee experiment was conducted by the U.S. Public Health Service between 1932 and 1972. Four hundred black Alabama sharecroppers and day laborers were followed to determine the effects of untreated syphilis; treatment was deliberately withheld from the subjects of the study, even after effective penicillin therapy became available. [BACK]

16. Baltimore City Health Department Annual Report (Baltimore, 1934), 107. [BACK]

17. "Plague," Baltimore Evening Sun , 13 August 1934. [BACK]

18. Baltimore City Health Department Annual Report (Baltimore, 1935), 115. [BACK]

19. Ferdinand O. Reinhard, "The Venereal Disease Problem in the Colored Population of Baltimore City," American Journal of Syphilis and Neurology 19 (1935): 183-195. [BACK]

20. Ferdinand O. Reinhard, "Late Latent Syphilis—A Problem and a Challenge," Journal of Social Hygiene 22 (1936): 360-363. [BACK]

21. Thomas Parran, Shadow on the Land : Syphilis (New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1937); Thomas Parran and R. A. Vonderlehr, Plain Words about Venereal Disease (New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1941); also see n. 20. [BACK]

22. Thomas Parran, "Why Don't We Stamp out Syphilis?" rpt. from Reader ' s Digest , July 1936, in Baltimore Health News 13 (August 1936): 3. [BACK]

23. E.g., Parran, Shadow on the Land , 207, 230. [BACK]

24. Thomas Parran, "Why Don't We Stamp out Syphilis?" rpt. Baltimore Health News 13 (August 1936): 8.

25. Ibid., 3. [BACK]

24. Thomas Parran, "Why Don't We Stamp out Syphilis?" rpt. Baltimore Health News 13 (August 1936): 8.

25. Ibid., 3. [BACK]

26. Thomas Parran, "Why Don't We Stamp out Syphilis?" Reader ' s Digest , July 1936, 65-73. [BACK]

27. "Open Attack on Age-Old Curse," Baltimore Sun , 9 August 1936. [BACK]

28. "War on Venereal Disease Impends," Baltimore Sun , 24 December 1936. [BACK]

29. "G-Men's Haul in Vice Raids Totals 47," Baltimore Sun , 17 May 1937. [BACK]

30. "Vice Witness Names Police Lieutenant," Baltimore Sun , 18 May 1937; "Vice Arrests May Total 100; Bierman Named," Baltimore Sunday Sun , 19 May 1937. [BACK]

31. "Starts to Survey Venereal Disease," Baltimore Sun , 29 July 1937; "Venereal Disease Fight Is Planned," Baltimore Sun , 22 August 1937; "Fight Opens Here on Social Disease," Baltimore Sun , 25 August 1937; "Syphilis Control Unit Begins Work," Baltimore Sun , 21 October 1937; ''Over 2,000 Attend Talks on Syphilis," Baltimore Sun , 26 October 1937. [BACK]

32. "Failure to Assist Syphilis Fight Hit," Baltimore Sun , 6 December 1937; "Jackson Pledges Aid in War on Syphilis," Baltimore Sun , 7 December 1937. [BACK]

33. "Attention Called to Syphilis Here," Baltimore Sun , 1 February 1938. [BACK]

34. Baltimore City Health Department Annual Report (Baltimore, 1938), 159, and (Baltimore, 1939), 159.

35. Ibid. (1938), 16; "21 Employers Asked in Drive on Syphilis," Baltimore Sun , 27 March 1938; "Syphilis Control Is Under Way Here," Baltimore Sun , 22 May 1938; W.M.P. "We Join the Anti-Syphilis Crusade," The Kalends (periodical of the Williams and Wilkins Company), June 1938, rpt. Baltimore Health News 15 (July 1938): 53-54; "Syphilis in Industry" (Baltimore City Health Department, n.d.). [BACK]

34. Baltimore City Health Department Annual Report (Baltimore, 1938), 159, and (Baltimore, 1939), 159.

35. Ibid. (1938), 16; "21 Employers Asked in Drive on Syphilis," Baltimore Sun , 27 March 1938; "Syphilis Control Is Under Way Here," Baltimore Sun , 22 May 1938; W.M.P. "We Join the Anti-Syphilis Crusade," The Kalends (periodical of the Williams and Wilkins Company), June 1938, rpt. Baltimore Health News 15 (July 1938): 53-54; "Syphilis in Industry" (Baltimore City Health Department, n.d.). [BACK]

36. Huntington Williams, "Discussion on the Symposium on Syphilis in Industry," 15 January 1940. Second Annual Conference on Industrial Health, sponsored by the Council on Industrial Health of the American Medical Association, Chicago, 15-16 January 1940; editorial, "Syphilis and Unemployment," Journal of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology 19 (1937): 189-192; Baltimore Health News 15 (July 1938): 50-57. [BACK]

37. Baltimore City Health Department Annual Report (Baltimore, 1938), 159-163, and (Baltimore, 1939), 159-163.

38. Ibid. (1940), 149-151.

39. Ibid. (1941), 139. [BACK]

37. Baltimore City Health Department Annual Report (Baltimore, 1938), 159-163, and (Baltimore, 1939), 159-163.

38. Ibid. (1940), 149-151.

39. Ibid. (1941), 139. [BACK]

37. Baltimore City Health Department Annual Report (Baltimore, 1938), 159-163, and (Baltimore, 1939), 159-163.

38. Ibid. (1940), 149-151.

39. Ibid. (1941), 139. [BACK]

40. "City Shown Second in Syphilis Survey," Baltimore Sun , 22 October 1941. [BACK]

41. "High Syphilis Rate Laid to Race Ratio," Baltimore Sun , 26 October 1941. [BACK]

42. "FBI and City Agencies Schedule Parley on Vice," Evening Sun , 15 July 1942. [BACK]

43. "Reckord Tells O'Conor of Vice," Baltimore Sun , 17 July 1942. [BACK]

44. "Itzel Charges War on Vice Hampered," Baltimore Sun , 26 January 1943. [BACK]

45. "Says Vice Control Has Improved Here," Baltimore Sun , 27 January 1943. [BACK]

46. "State Law Held Needed in War on Vice," Baltimore Sun , 28 January 1943. [BACK]

47. Nels A. Nelson, "The Repression of Prostitution for Venereal Disease Control," Baltimore Health News 20 (January 1943): 107-108. [BACK]

48. "High Venereal Disease Rate Cited in Maryland," Baltimore Sun , 4 December 1942. [BACK]

49. "Vice Inquiry Transferred to Annapolis," Baltimore Sun , 29 January 1943. [BACK]

50. "Stanton Idea for Examination of Prostitutes Is Denounced," Baltimore Sun , 29 January 1943. [BACK]

51. "Venereal Picture Dark: Dr. Huntington Williams Says No Improvement Is Expected for Some Time," Baltimore Sun , 21 January 1943. [BACK]

52. "Baltimore Disease Council Is Organized," Baltimore Health News 20 (February 1943): 109-110. [BACK]

53. "Three Venereal Disease Council Committee Reports," Baltimore Health News 20 (March 1943): 119-120.

54. Ibid., 118-119. [BACK]

53. "Three Venereal Disease Council Committee Reports," Baltimore Health News 20 (March 1943): 119-120.

54. Ibid., 118-119. [BACK]

55. "Clinics Here under Fire," Baltimore Sun , 30 March 1943. [BACK]

56. "Venereal Disease Rate High in State," Baltimore Sun , 15 June 1943. [BACK]

57. Parran and Vonderlehr, Plain Words about Venereal Disease , esp. 96-120.

58. Ibid., 77. [BACK]

57. Parran and Vonderlehr, Plain Words about Venereal Disease , esp. 96-120.

58. Ibid., 77. [BACK]

59. Baltimore City Health Department Annual Report (Baltimore, 1943), 147.

60. Ibid., 148. [BACK]

59. Baltimore City Health Department Annual Report (Baltimore, 1943), 147.

60. Ibid., 148. [BACK]

61. C. Howe Eller, "A Sex Education Project and Serologic Survey in a Baltimore High School," Baltimore Health News 21 (1944): 81-87.

62. Ibid., 84. [BACK]

61. C. Howe Eller, "A Sex Education Project and Serologic Survey in a Baltimore High School," Baltimore Health News 21 (1944): 81-87.

62. Ibid., 84. [BACK]

63. J. D. Porterfield, Baltimore City Health Department, "A Talk on Sex Hygiene for High School Students," April 1944, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, RG 1.1, ser. 200, 1.

64. Ibid., 4.

65. Ibid., 7. [BACK]

63. J. D. Porterfield, Baltimore City Health Department, "A Talk on Sex Hygiene for High School Students," April 1944, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, RG 1.1, ser. 200, 1.

64. Ibid., 4.

65. Ibid., 7. [BACK]

63. J. D. Porterfield, Baltimore City Health Department, "A Talk on Sex Hygiene for High School Students," April 1944, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, RG 1.1, ser. 200, 1.

64. Ibid., 4.

65. Ibid., 7. [BACK]

66. Emily V. Clapp, Growing Up in the World Today (Boston: Massachusetts Society for Social Hygiene, n.d.).

67. Ibid., 14. [BACK]

66. Emily V. Clapp, Growing Up in the World Today (Boston: Massachusetts Society for Social Hygiene, n.d.).

67. Ibid., 14. [BACK]

68. For the development of penicillin therapy, see Harry F. Dowling, Fighting Infection : Conquests of the Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1977), 125-157. [BACK]

69. Baltimore City Health Department Annual Report (Baltimore, 1945), 29.

70. Ibid., 145-146; "Venereal Law Made Specific," Baltimore Sun , 26 August 1945. [BACK]

69. Baltimore City Health Department Annual Report (Baltimore, 1945), 29.

70. Ibid., 145-146; "Venereal Law Made Specific," Baltimore Sun , 26 August 1945. [BACK]

71. "End of VD—Cure Center Seen as Calamity," Evening Sun , 12 June 1946. [BACK]

72. "A Temporary Power Made Permanent," Baltimore Sun , 9 January 1947. [BACK]

73. "Rapid Treatment: Maryland State Department of Health," Press Bulletin No. 1043, 27 January 1947, Enoch Pratt Public Library of Baltimore, Maryland Room.

74. Ibid. [BACK]

73. "Rapid Treatment: Maryland State Department of Health," Press Bulletin No. 1043, 27 January 1947, Enoch Pratt Public Library of Baltimore, Maryland Room.

74. Ibid. [BACK]

75. Baltimore City Health Department Annual Report (Baltimore, 1946), 28. [BACK]

76. Thomas B. Turner, "Syphilis: Help or Hindrance?" Talk to American Social Hygiene Association, 2 February 1948, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, RG 1.1, ser. 200, 4. [BACK]

77. "Baltimore City STD Fact Sheet" (Baltimore City Health Department, November 1981). [BACK]

78. "City Assembles Coalition to Battle Venereal Disease," Baltimore Sun , 10 June 1976. [BACK]