Medina: An Ottoman Outpost in the Hijaz
The most significant measure that the Young Turk governments took to enhance central authority in the province was the modification of the administrative status of the sancak of Medina, Islam’s second holy city. Much more so than Mecca, Medina remained outside the reach of Western diplomats and intelligence, and hence scholars. The new importance it acquired during the Young Turk period has therefore been overlooked.
The Young Turk governments viewed Medina as a base from which they hoped to implement policy not only in the Hijaz itself but also in the entire Arabian periphery. Even though Medina lay in a gray zone between Damascus in the north and Jidda and Mecca in the south, and had political and economic links to both regions, Ottoman governments had long recognized the strategic importance of the city and its crucial role in the organization and safe conduct of the pilgrimage. As its administrative designation, muhafızlık (wardship), suggests, Medina had been a strategic outpost under the governorship of a military commander.
Medina, situated at a central position in the Arabian Peninsula where the distance between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf is shortest, has been described as the “gateway to Central Arabia.”[89] It was built on terrain relatively easy to defend, supports some agriculture, and has abundant water compared with the rest of the Hijaz.[90] It was located at major crossroads for trade and especially for the transportation of pilgrims to and from Mecca. The town was historically a literary and cultural center commensurate with its religious importance as the Prophet’s burial place. The added significance that the city acquired during the Young Turk period was primarily a result of the construction of the Damascus-Medina line of the Hijaz Railway, which made the town easily accessible from Damascus.
The Ottoman government saw in Medina’s improved communications the opportunity to project its power further south in Arabia without necessarily extending the railway to Mecca or Yemen. The physical features, strategic location, and refurbished communications of Medina made it an excellent military outpost. Medina also offered the geopolitical advantages of keeping a check on Ibn Sa‘ud of the Najd and the growing influence of Britain along the Eastern coast of Arabia.[91]
At a time when the rivalries of the European powers in the broader region intensified and Ottoman suspicions of European intentions grew, Medina’s isolated location beyond the reach of European intelligence was an added advantage to the Young Turk governments. This isolation is evident in the reports of the Jidda and Damascus consulates, from which news of Medina was conspicuously absent. British consular reports, the best informed in the region, often expressed frustration stemming from a dearth of information from Medina. The Foreign Office encouraged its consulate in Damascus to collect any information on matters pertaining to Medina, while the Jidda consulate’s extensive reports, primarily on Jidda but also on Mecca typically ended with a postscript stating, “As to Medina I have no information.”[92]
In the summer of 1910 the Ottoman government changed the administrative status of Medina from sancak of the Hijaz vilayet to “independent sancak.”[93] The designation muhafızlık was retained. That the separation was implemented with an eye toward extending direct central control over the Hijaz did not escape Sharif Husayn, who immediately cabled the grand vizierate to inquire about the implications of the latest decision on the traditional prerogatives of the grand sharif. The Ottoman government took the opportunity to remind the sharif that his sphere of influence comprised the pilgrimage and Beduin affairs, as had been previously established, and that in these two domains his prerogatives would extend to the newly constituted muhafızlık.[94] Despite this reassurance, however, the grand sharif had no legally defined prerogatives,[95] and the strengthening of central control in Medina threatened his regional power and standing.
The administrative separation of Medina from the rest of the Hijaz signified its integration into the mainstream of Ottoman policies. The CUP sent inspectors to Medina, and Tanin maintained a correspondent in the city. The CUP club in Medina had many members from the local townspeople as well as from the shaykhs of Beduin tribes in the area.[96] During the pilgrimage, the CUP organized public lectures on topics such as the unity of Muslims.[97] The Ottoman government took a much greater interest in implementing reforms in Medina than in any other part of the Hijaz. The Medina CUP built schools in the city. In 1909 İstanbul acted on the aforementioned reform plan of an ‘alim of Medina, ‘Abd al-Rahman Ilyas, which was drafted to improve conditions in Arabia.[98] Two years later Muhafız ‘Ali Rida Pasha (al-Rikabi) submitted a program specifically concerned with Medina, proposing reforms ranging from encouraging the sedentarization of the Beduins to the surveillance of the Red Sea coast in order to prevent the smuggling of arms and slaves. The Muhafız was invited to İstanbul to discuss his reform scheme. The reform proposal called for soliciting the cooperation of the population (by declaring a general amnesty and implementing the conversion of the Medina court of appeal into a şeriat court), encouraging the settlement of tribes by promoting agriculture and servicing of the railway, bringing about improvements in municipal facilities, and encouraging education.[99] Even though some of the measures proposed by the Muhafız were found unnecessary (e.g., the founding of an agricultural bank)[100] or their implementation financially unfeasible (e.g., the establishment of an industrial school),[101] the improvement of conditions in Medina received high priority in İstanbul. Many of ‘Ali Rida’s proposals were carefully studied by the ministries, which made provisions in the budget for the following year.[102]
The extension of the railway to Medina and the modification of the town’s administrative status became the centerpieces of the Young Turk policy of centralization in Arabia. İstanbul thus exerted its influence in the Hijaz by tempering and directing Sharif Husayn’s ambitions. With the imposition of the coercive elements of the “Ottoman order”[103] on Medina, the government was able to exert more influence than ever in the Peninsula dominated by tribal and religious leaders. The government’s penetration did not signify incorporation, though the economic integration of the region was contemplated, as evidenced by the coastal railway schemes.