1. Arai, Turkish Nationalism, 70, 83–85. [BACK]

2. HHS. PA 38/362. Dandini to Berchtold (Aleppo, 12 March 1914). [BACK]

3. As‘ad served during the war as the müftü of the Fourth Army in Syria and as an advisor to Cemal Pasha. T. E. Lawrence describes him as a “notorious pro-Turk pimp” (Seven Pillars of Wisdom [New York: Doubleday, 1938], 432). As‘ad was the father of Ahmad al-Shuqayri, the first chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization in 1964. [BACK]

4. AA. Türkei 177/Bd. 11. Loytved-Hardegg to Bethmann-Hollweg, no. 49 (Haifa, 30 March 1914). [BACK]

5. Khalidi describes deputies-elect from Syrian provinces, among them Amin ‘Abd al-Hadi, as “nonentities whose main distinction was that they were of the same families as prominent Arab nationalists.” Amin, related to one of the leaders of the Decentralization League, Salim ‘Abd al-Hadi, was a graduate of the Mülkiye and a prominent functionary. Khalidi, “Arab Nationalism in Syria,” 232. [BACK]

6. BBA. DH-SYS 122/5–1 (2 April 1914). [BACK]

7. AA. Türkei 177/Bd. 11, no. 49 (see note 4). [BACK]

8. BBA. DH-SYS 122/2 (5 January 1914). [BACK]

9. “Désireux de faire échec à l’ “Union arabe,” le Comité Union et Progrès de Beyrouth avait provoqué la création d’une société rivale destinée, sous le nom de “fraternité musulmane,” à amener une entente entre Turcs et Arabes.” MAE. Turquie, N.S. 124. Boppe to MAE, no. 91 (Pera, 8 February 1914). [BACK]

10. US 867.00/603. Richarz (?) to Secretary of State (Baghdad, 11 January 1914). [BACK]

11. The Austrian consul in Aleppo reported the lack of interest of leading Arab notables in the elections was expected to result in the election of only Unionist candidates. But in Aleppo, too, half of the newly elected deputies were newcomers more accurately identified as independents. See HHS. PA 38/362. Dandini to Berchtold (24 January 1914). [BACK]

12. See Ahmad and Rustow (p. 247) and Prätor (pp. 28–29) for the basis of these calculations. [BACK]

13. The royal decree was issued on 4 January 1914. See As‘ad Daghir, Thawrat al-‘arab (Cairo, 1916), 46; Burru, 548. [BACK]

14. Daghir sees Zahrawi as the only decentralist, yet Bayhum, Sursuq, and possibly the Aleppine senator had been in the same camp. See PRO. FO 195/2457/316. Cumberbatch to Mallet, no. 3 (Beirut, 16 January 1914); AA. Türkei 177/Bd. 11, no. 49 (see note 4). Baruni was one of the leaders of the Libyan resistance against Italy and stayed in Libya despite his new appointment. See Orhan Koloğlu, Mustafa Kemal’in Yanında İki Libyalı Lider (Ankara: Libya Arap Halk Sosyalist Cemahiriyesi Ankara Halk Bürosu Kültür Merkezi Yayınları, 1981). Sursuq, too, probably stayed in Beirut. According to Cumberbatch, he was too old to undertake the trip. Sursuq donated his Senate salary to the Donanma Cemiyeti (Naval Defense Fund). [BACK]

15. Prätor, 220. [BACK]

16. Khalidi, “Arab Nationalism in Syria,” 231. [BACK]

17. MAE. Turquie, N.S. 9. Boppe to MAE, no. 22 (Pera, 16 January 1914). [BACK]

18. He was reelected in November 1915. Prätor, 62. [BACK]

19. MAE. Turquie, N.S. 9. Boppe to MAE, no. 115 (17 February 1914). [BACK]

20. HHS. PA 38/363. Ranzi to Berchtold (Damascus, 11 February 1914). Al-Inkilizi was later employed in the central inspectoral agency in İstanbul. [BACK]

21. The reassignment was not due to the Syrian governor’s objections, İstanbul explained, but due to the fact that al-‘Asali was a native of the province of Syria. Aleppo governor Celal threatened to resign, saying that al-‘Asali “will poison this province that has so far managed to stay outside of insidious currents.” For this correspondence (28 and 29 January 1914) and the regulations governing the new inspectorships (19 November 1913), see BBA. DH-KMS 5/28. [BACK]

22. Seikaly, 91. [BACK]

23. Khalidi, “Arab Nationalism in Syria,” 232. [BACK]

24. Seikaly, 91. [BACK]

25. The author is careful not to compromise al-Zahrawi’s Arabist credentials when he writes, “In the end, al-Zahrawi probably accepted membership of the Senate because it did not imply a post in the government; it was, rather, a control on the government, not a service.” Tarabein, 107, 114. [BACK]

26. AA. Türkei 177/Bd. 11, no. 49 (see note 4). [BACK]

27. BBA. DH-KMS 18/19 (24 March 1914). [BACK]

28. BBA. DH-KMS 17/24 (19 March 1914). [BACK]

29. MAE. Turquie, N.S. 9. Bureau des Communications. “Le Grand Chérif Hossein Pacha et la situation en Arabie” (9 February 1914). He is reported to have contributed to Jawish’s undertakings and to the Donanma Cemiyeti. [BACK]

30. BBA. DH-KMS 17/4 (5 March 1914). This is the aforementioned Al-mu’tamar al-‘arabi al-awwal. [BACK]

31. Cemal reports in his memoirs of such a meeting with al-Zahrawi and ‘Abd al-Karim al-Khalil (a Beiruti reformist leader) in the home of ‘Abd al-‘Aziz Jawish. Cemal Paşa, Hatıralar, ed. Behçet Cemal (İstanbul: Çağdaş, 1977), 75–76. [BACK]

32. HHS. PA 38/363. Ranzi to Berchtold (Damascus, 17 January 1914). [BACK]

33. AA. Türkei 177/Bd. 10. Rößler to Bethmann-Hollweg, no. 8 (Aleppo, 21 January 1914). [BACK]

34. In the early months of the war, when on exile in Europe, the Liberal leader Sabahaddin “considered his Party strong in the Smyrna garrison, numerous in Constantinople and popular among the masses of the Turkish people.…[But h]e had no communication either with the Arabs in Syria or the Armenians in Zeitun or Eastern Armenia.” PRO. FO 371/2486/34982. Mark Sykes to Major General C. E. Callwell, Director of Military Operations, no. 4 (Athens, 12 June 1915). [BACK]

35. The most comprehensive sources on Arab societies are Eliezer Tauber’s previously cited The Emergence of the Arab Movements and its companion volume on the war years, The Arab Movements in World War I (London: Frank Cass, 1993). See Emergence, 90–97, for Al-fatat and 198–236 for Al-‘ahd and Arab Movements, 57–78, for the joint activities of the two societies after 1914. [BACK]

36. Tauber, Emergence, 220; Mousa, Al-haraka, 33–34. Dawn is skeptical about the membership figures for the two secret organizations first cited by nationalist-minded Arab authors like Antonius and Amin Sa‘id. See his “Origins”, 13. [BACK]

37. For the imperial decree on Enver’s promotion and appointment as minister, see BBA. DUIT 4/14–6 (3 January 1914). [BACK]

38. US 867.00/600. Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary Morgenthau to the Secretary of State (İstanbul, 17 January 1914). [BACK]

39. HHS. PA 38/363. Ranzi to Berchtold (Damascus, 11 February 1914). [BACK]

40. PRO. FO 195/2456/66. Mallet (?) to Grey, no. 46 ([İstanbul], 25 January 1914). [BACK]

41. The owner of Al-iqbal (Beirut) requested a similar subsidy. BBA. DH-KMS 14/17 (31 January 1914). [BACK]

42. US 867.00/608. Baghdad Consulate to the Secretary of State and Ambassador (25 February 1914). [BACK]

43. Fourth Army, Âliye Divan-ı Harb-i Örfisinde Tedkik Olunan Mesele-i Siyasiye Hakkında İzahat (İstanbul, 1332 [1916]), 19. [BACK]

44. AA. Türkei 165/Bd. 36. Hesse to Bethmann-Hollweg, no. 290/A.3 (Baghdad, 19 March 1914). [BACK]

45. PRO. FO 195/2457/350. Crow to Mallet, no. 9 (Basra, 4 February 1914). [BACK]

46. These efforts elicited the sarcastic comment from the British consul that Shafiq was bringing electric tramways to “a town whose drinking water is drawn from a filthy creek.” PRO. FO 195/2457/350. Acting Consul R. W. Bullard to Mallet, no. 40 (Basra, 25 July 1914). [BACK]

47. PRO. FO 195/2457/350. Crow to Mallet, no. 26 (Basra, 2 May 1914). [BACK]

48. PRO. FO 195/2457/350. Acting consul Bullard to Mallet, no. 38 (Basra, 20 June 1914). [BACK]

49. PRO. FO 195/2457/350. Mallet to [F.O.], no. 205 (draft) ([İstanbul], 25 March [1914]). [BACK]

50. AA. Türkei 165/Bd. 36. Wangenheim to Bethmann-Hollweg, no. 100 (Pera, 22 March 1914). [BACK]

51. PRO. FO 371/2140/46261. Major S. G. Knox to the Foreign Secretary to the Government of India, no. 97 (55364) (Bushire, 8 August 1914). [BACK]

52. PRO. FO 371/2140/51468. Cheetham to [F.O.], no. 167 (Cairo, 21 September 1914). [BACK]

53. PRO. FO 371/2140/46261, no. 899 (Constantinople, 30 September 1914). [BACK]

54. HHS. PA 38/366. Ranzi to Burian (Damascus, 6 February and 5 June 1915). [BACK]

55. MAE. Turquie, N.S. 9. Consul General [Ottawi] to Doumerque, no. 26 (Damascus, 20 March 1914). [BACK]

56. AA 165/Bd. 36. Wangenheim to Bethmann-Hollweg (22 May 1914). The only possible candidate for the leadership role, according to Wangenheim, was ‘Aziz al-Misri, now in Cairo. [BACK]

57. BBA. BEO 319014 (305428). The Grand Vizierate to the Ministries of the Interior and War (15 January 1914). Vehib had taken command of the forces at the end of 1913. [BACK]

58. AA. Türkei 165/Bd. 36. (?) to Bethmann-Hollweg, fol. K196357 (Berlin, 25 January 1914); Wangenheim to Bethmann-Hollweg, no. 87 (Pera, 9 March 1914). See chapter 4 on similar rumors during the Balkan Wars. [BACK]

59. Tauber, Emergence, 114. [BACK]

60. AA. Türkei 165/Bd. 36. Miquel to Bethmann-Hollweg, no. 47 (Cairo, 19 April 1914); PRO. FO 371/2140/46261. Cheetham [to F.O.], no. 149 (7 September 1914). [BACK]

61. Ahmad, “International Status of Kuwait,” 184. [BACK]

62. Zeine, Arab Nationalism, 106. [BACK]

63. Tauber, Emergence, 115. [BACK]

64. MAE. Turquie, N.S. 9. Bureau des Communications. “Le Grand Chérif Hossein Pacha et la situation en Arabie,” no. 15 (Jidda, 9 February 1914). [BACK]

65. BBA. BEO 319171. Husayn to Grand Vizierate (3 February 1914). [BACK]

66. AA. Türkei 165/Bd. 36. Miquel (?) to Bethmann-Hollweg, no. 32 (Cairo, 11 March 1914). [BACK]

67. BBA. BEO 319362. Husayn to the Grand Vizierate (12 February 1914). [BACK]

68. BBA. BEO 319823 (319564). Husayn to the Grand Vizierate (25 February 1914). [BACK]

69. BBA. BEO 319823 (319564). Talat Pasha to [the Grand Vizierate] (3 March 1914). [BACK]

70. MAE. Turquie, N.S. 9. Boppe to [MAE], no. 95 (Pera, 9 February 1914). [BACK]

71. PRO. FO 195/2457/350. Acting Consul Abdurrahman to Mallet, no. 17 (Jidda, 19 March 1914). According to Stoddard, Vehib Bey was “ordered to make peace with [Sharif Husayn] in the interests of pan-Islamic harmony.” Stoddard, 139. [BACK]

72. PRO. FO 195/2457/350. Devey to [F.O.] (Damascus, 7 May 1914). [BACK]

73. BBA. DH-KMS 21/54. Vehib to the Ministry of the Interior, no. 58 (6 April 1914). [BACK]

74. Ibid., no. 66 (9 May 1914). [BACK]

75. Ibid., no. 51 (5 May 1914). [BACK]

76. Ibid., no. 65 (9 May 1914). [BACK]

77. Ibid., no. 71 (11 May 1914). [BACK]

78. Ibid., no. 70 (11 May 1914). [BACK]

79. Ibid., no. 138 (18 June 1914). [BACK]

80. Ibid., no. 72 (13 May 1914). [BACK]

81. Ibid., no. 181 (10 August 1914). [BACK]

82. Ibid. (1 June 1914). [BACK]

83. BBA. DH-KMS 24–1/8 (16 June 1914). [BACK]

84. BBA. DH-KMS 21/54 (12 July, 9 and 10 August 1914). [BACK]

85. Most recently, in April ‘Abdullah had asked the British for machine guns. See Dawn, Ottomanism, 20. [BACK]

86. BBA. DH-KMS 21/54, no. 32 (5 August 1914). [BACK]

87. Ibid., no. 181 (10 August 1914). [BACK]

88. Ibid. (17 August 1914). [BACK]

89. A. Emin Yalman, Turkey in the World War (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1930), 102. [BACK]

90. Dawn, Ottomanism, 26. [BACK]

91. Tauber, World War I, 15–16. [BACK]

92. PRO. FO 195/2446. Cumberbatch to Lowther (Beirut, 14 November 1914). [BACK]

93. Ahmad, Young Turks, 157. [BACK]

94. Tauber, World War I, 19. [BACK]

95. PRO. FO 371/2140, no. 604 (57234) (Therapia, 22 September 1914). [BACK]

96. PRO. FO 371/2140/46261. Cheetham to [F.O.], no. 149 (Cairo, 7 September 1914). [BACK]

97. PRO. FO 371/2140/46261. Cheetham to Grey, no. 177 (Cairo, 15 November 1914); PRO. FO 371/2140/46261. Secretary of State [for India] to Viceroy, no. 75460 (19 November 1914). [BACK]

98. Majid Khadduri, “ ‘Aziz ‘Ali Misri and the Arab Nationalist Movement,” in ed. Hourani, Middle Eastern Affairs, no. 4 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965), 140–163. [BACK]

99. Tauber, World War I, 83–86. [BACK]

100. Briton Cooper Busch, Britain, India, and the Arabs, 1914–1921 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1971), 11; PRO. FO 371/2140/46261. Mallet to Grey, no. 942 (57074) (İstanbul, 7 October 1914); Viceroy to India Office, no. 64904 (28 October 1914); Viceroy to India Office, no. 77724 (Bombay [?], 30 November 1914). [BACK]

101. Danişmend, İzahlı, 419. [BACK]

102. Ulrich Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman Empire, 1914–1918 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1968), 119. [BACK]

103. AA. Türkei 165/Bd. 37. Wangenheim to [Auswärtiges Amt], no. 1605 (Pera, 13 December 1914). [BACK]

104. Ibid. [BACK]

105. Ibid. The latter of these measures no doubt offered certain political advantages by restricting communications. [BACK]

106. PRO. FO 371/2139/44923. Cheetham to [F.O.], no. 310 (81133) (Cairo, 10 December 1914). [BACK]

107. Ali Fuat Erden, Paris’ten Tih Sahrasına (Ankara: Ulus, 1949), 53–56. On the Kurdish roots of the al-Yusuf family, see Khoury, 35–40. [BACK]

108. Amin Sa‘id, Al-thawra al-‘arabiya al-kubra (Cairo, 1934 [?]), 1:105–6, quoted in Dawn, Ottomanism, 28. [BACK]

109. Antonius, 150; Dawn, Ottomanism, 27; Zeine, Arab Nationalism, 108. [BACK]

110. For the main stipulations of the treaty, see George Lenczowski, The Middle East in World Affairs (London: Cornell University Press, 1980), 75. [BACK]

111. BBA. DUIT 5/1–3–10 (28 February 1915). [BACK]

112. ATASE. World War I, 553/[] -2150 (8 February 1915). [BACK]

113. Ibid. Cemal to Deputy Commander-in-Chief [Enver] (20 February 1915). [BACK]

114. Ibid. Deputy Commander Ahmed to Enver (13 March 1915). [BACK]

115. BBA. DH-İ.Um. 4–1/2. Muhafız Basri to the Ministry of the Interior (30 March 1915); ATASE. World War I, 165/159–725. Commander [Ahmed] to Enver (18 May 1915). [BACK]

116. ATASE. World War I, 165/159–725. Cemal to Enver, no. 5 (29 May 1915). [BACK]

117. Ibid., no. 5–1 (31 May 1915). [BACK]

118. ATASE. World War I, 1832/7–21. Sharif Husayn to Enver (10 July 1915). [BACK]

119. See, for instance, Tauber, World War I, and Antonius, 164. [BACK]

120. ATASE. World War I, 1832/7–21, no. 1–1 (3 August 1915). [BACK]

121. Ibid. (15 August 1915). [BACK]

122. Ibid. (28 August 1915). [BACK]

123. US 867.4016/290. Philip to Secretary of State, no. 1186 (İstanbul, 1 July 1916); US 867.00/777. Hollis to Morgenthau (Beirut, 26 July 1915). [BACK]

124. See Erden, Paris’ten, for a vivid account of the Canal campaign. [BACK]

125. Tauber provides a detailed account of how the Ottoman authorities obtained the incriminating documents. Cemal Pasha did not make public the documents that were found in the first roundup of the consulates at the end of 1914 and that incriminated those sentenced in 1915. A second raid of the French consulate at the end of 1915 revealed more evidence and led to the executions of 1916. See Tauber, World War I, 39–56. İzahat, the book published by Cemal Pasha’s Fourth Army in 1916, elaborates on the activities of the executed and attempts to justify ex post facto the decisions of the military court. [BACK]

126. Suleiman Mousa, T. E. Lawrence: An Arab View, trans. Albert Butros (London: Oxford University Press, 1966), 14. [BACK]

127. Tauber, World War I, 54; Antonius, 186–87. [BACK]

128. BBA. DH-KMS 36/22 (10 January 1915). [BACK]

129. US 867.4016/283. Philip to Secretary of State (İstanbul [via Copen hagen], 21 May 1916). [BACK]

130. Tauber, World War I, 45. [BACK]

131. HHS. PA 38/369. Nedwed to Burian (Beirut, 15 April 1916). [BACK]

132. Fourth Army, İzahat, 6. [BACK]

133. “Many are known to have been comfortably transported at Government expense as far as Angora, being given to understand that land will be allotted to them equal in extent to that left behind, etc.” US 867.4016/283 (see note 129). [BACK]

134. HHS. PA 38/369 (see note 131). [BACK]

135. The purpose of the law was to abolish the use of European languages in the conduct of business so that employment opportunities would open up for Muslim elements in public (primarily, utility) and private companies. Zafer Toprak, Türkiye’de “Milli İktisat,” 1908–1918 (Ankara: Yurt, 1982), 79–80. Yalman, 114. [BACK]

136. HHS. PA 38/369. Ranzi to Burian (Damascus, 30 March 1916). [BACK]

137. AA. Türkei 177/Bd. 12. Loytved-Hardegg to Embassy (Damascus, 4 April 1916). Enclosed in Metternich to Bethmann-Hollweg, no. 154 (Pera, 7 April 1916). [BACK]

138. The American ambassador Morgenthau described to the secretary of state Lansing the balance of power within the Committee of Union and Progress party as an “intensely interesting” phenomenon that, in his opinion, differed distinctly “from the Boss Rule in the United States.” According to Morgenthau, there were some forty members of the Committee who were influential in the government of the empire. A core of nine was particularly powerful. It included, in addition to Talat, Enver, and Cemal, Central Committee Chairman Dr. Nazım, Foreign Minister Halil, President of the General Assembly Hacı Adil, Eyüp Sabri, and Bahattin Şakir. US 867.00/797. Morgenthau to Lansing (İstanbul, 4 November 1915). See also Trumpener, 71. [BACK]

139. Feridun Kandemir, Peygamberimizin Gölgesinde Son Türkler (İstanbul, 1974), 23; Falih Rıfkı Atay, Zeytindağı (İstanbul, 1938), 63; Erden, Paris’ten, 22. [BACK]

140. PRO. FO 371/2486/34982. Statement of Husayn’s messenger Mohammed Ibn Arif Oreifan [to the High Commissioner] (Alexandria, 18 August 1915). [BACK]

141. HHS. PA 38/366. Ranzi to Burian (Damascus, 15 December 1915). Linda Schatkowski Schilcher, “The Famine of 1915–1918 in Greater Syria,” in Problems of the Modern Middle East in Historical Perspective: Essays in Honor of Albert Hou rani, ed. John P. Spagnolo (Reading: Ithaca Press, 1992), 229–58. [BACK]

142. See Tauber, World War I, 54–55; HHS. PA 38/369 (see note 136); and for Zahrawi, in particular, US 867.4016/283 (see note 129). [BACK]

143. For the text of the declaration, see André Mandelstam, Le Sort de l’empire ottomane (Lausanne: Librairie Payot, 1917), 360–62; F. De Jong, “The Proclamations of al-Husayn b. ‘Ali and ‘Ali Haydar,” Der Islam 57 (1980): 281–87; Selahaddin, 93–94. [BACK]

144. AA. Türkei 165/Bd. 39. Metternich to [Auswärtiges Amt], no. 423 (Therapia, 26 July 1916). [BACK]

145. De Jong, 285. AA. Türkei 165/Bd. 39. Loytved-Hardegg to [Embassy], no. 118 (Damascus, 5 August 1916). Enclosed in Metternich to Bethmann-Hollweg, no. 455 (Therapia, 6 August 1916). [BACK]

146. AA. Türkei 165/Bd. 41. Loytved-Hardegg to Bethmann-Hollweg, no. 26 (Damascus, 5 January 1917). [BACK]

147. Konrad Morsey, T. E. Lawrence und der arabische Aufstand, 1916/18 (Osnabrück: Biblio Verlag, 1976), 84–86. For Max Freiherr von Oppenheim’s activities to establish a news center for propaganda in Syria and Arabia, see Gottfried Hagen, Die Türkei im Ersten Weltkrieg (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1990), 35–44. [BACK]

148. HHS. PA 38/369. Ranzi to Burian (Damascus, 28 August 1916). [BACK]

149. HHS. PA 38/369. Ranzi to Burian (Damascus, 29 September 1916). [BACK]

150. Nicholas Z. Ajay, Jr., “Political Intrigue and Suppression in Lebanon during World War I,” IJMES 5 (1974): 158. [BACK]

151. AA. Türkei 165/Bd. 40. Mutius to Metternich quoting Hoffmann (vice-consul in Tripoli), no. 2076 (Beirut, 12 October 1916). [BACK]

152. Bayur, 3 (pt. 4): 320–21. [BACK]

153. AA. Türkei 165/Bd. 38 (Damascus, 1 July 1916). Enclosed in Metternich to [the Minister of Foreign Affairs] ([İstanbul], 2 July 1916). [BACK]

154. AA. Türkei 167/Bd. 11. M. Hartmann to [Auswärtiges Amt ?], no. 4143/444 (Berlin, 17 July 1916). [BACK]

155. Dawn, Ottomanism, 49. [BACK]

156. Khadduri, 153–54. On al-Misri’s unwillingness to subordinate himself to Sharif Husayn’s orders, his continued faith in a federal Turco-Arab empire, and his defection, see Tauber, World War I, 91–100. [BACK]

157. AA. Türkei 165/Bd. 40. Romberg to Bethmann-Hollweg, no. 2259 (Bern, 10 October 1916). [BACK]

158. AA. Türkei 165/Bd. 41. Loytved-Hardegg to Bethmann-Hollweg, no. 26 (Damascus, 5 January 1917). [BACK]

160. AA. Türkei 165/Bd. 39. Loytved-Hardegg to Wolff-Metternich, no. 826 (Damascus, 6 August 1916). [BACK]

161. Schilcher, 234. [BACK]

162. MAE. Guerre 1679. “La Situation en Syrie” (9 July 1916); Atay, 88. [BACK]

163. AA. Türkei 177/Bd. 3. Dr. Ruppin to Abram I. Elkus (13 October 1916). [BACK]

164. HHS. PA 38/369. Nedwed to Burian (26 October and 13 December 1916). [BACK]

165. MAE. Guerre 1680. Bulletin de Renseignements. Ministère de la Guerre, no. 4498–9/11 (14 June 1917). [BACK]

166. A. D. Novichev, Ekonomika Turtsii v period mirovoi voin, 18–19. Cited in Ahmad, “Agrarian Policy,” 285. [BACK]

167. AA. Türkei 134/Bd. 37. Kühlmann (?) to Bethmann-Hollweg (Pera, 4 April 1917). [BACK]

168. Ali Fuat Erden, Birinci Dünya Harbinde Suriye Hatıraları (İstanbul, 1954), 91–92. [BACK]

169. On the new financial, educational, and health institutions in Aleppo, see HHS. PA 38/370. Dandini to Czernin (Aleppo, 16 February 1917). [BACK]

170. Revue du Monde Musulman 18 (1912): 224. [BACK]

171. AA. Türkei 165/Bd. 41. Kühlmann to Auswärtiges Amt, no. 269 (Konstantinopel, 20 February 1917). [BACK]

172. Trumpener, 57, quotes Talat’s remark to Austrian Ambassador Pallavicini. [BACK]

173. See, for instance, Danişmend, İzahlı, 434. [BACK]

174. AA. Türkei 177/Bd. 11. Loytved-Hardegg to Bethmann-Hollweg, no. 49 (Haifa, 30 March 1914). [BACK]

175. US 867.00/804½. Elkus to Robert Lansing (İstanbul, 2 March 1917). Also, Bayur, 3 (pt. 4): 326–27. [BACK]

176. US 867.00/796. Sharp to Secretary of State quoting report from Ambassador Elkus (Paris, 10 June 1917). [BACK]

177. On 5 February 1917 Talat, in his opening speech of Parliament, announced his cabinet’s intention to provide “every Osmanli” with all the rights which “the Constitution grants to him and thus to secure the rule of law in the country.” Trumpener, 246. [BACK]

178. US 867.00/804½ (see note 175). Until the entry of the United States into the war, the American Embassy had contacts with Turkish politicians and a good insight into the political situation in the Ottoman Empire. Elkus requested the secretary of state at the end of his report to “consider the present as strictly confidential and to give nothing of this to the press.” He added, “If any of the statements of the Ministers or others should be made public they may get into very serious trouble and my position here will be made very difficult.” [BACK]

179. In 1917 Parliament debated the role of Islam in Ottoman institutions, and a new and more secular civil code was passed. Noteworthy in these debates was the argument of a Turkish deputy (Şemseddin Bey representing Ertuğrul [Bilecik]) that the knowledge of Arabic was important for all Ottomans: “There is no need to dwell at length on the necessity to teach Arabic in our schools. Since the noble Arab millet (community or nation) constitutes half of our country (vatan) and of our millet, we by all means need to know their language.” Ergin, 4:1373. [BACK]

180. Holt, 276; T. E. Lawrence, Seven Pillars of Wisdom (New York: Doubleday, 1938), 554–55. [BACK]

181. Celal Bayar, Ben de Yazdım (İstanbul: Baha, 1965), 1:25. [BACK]

182. Bayar, 42, quotes C. V. F. Townshend, Irak Seferi, 474–88. [BACK]

183. US 867.00/866. Stowell to the Secretary of State, no. 6582 (Berne, 4 April 1919). [BACK]

184. US 867.00/948. Grey to Secretary of State via Paris, no. 1475 (4 October 1919). [BACK]

185. Khayriyya Qasimiyya, Al-hukumat al-‘arabiyya fi dimashq (Cairo: Dar al-Ma‘arif, 1971), 80–81. [BACK]

186. Laurence Evans, United States Policy and the Partition of Turkey, 1914–1924 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1965), 246–47. Also, Zeine N. Zeine, The Struggle for Arab Independence (New York: Caravan, 1977), 134–35. [BACK]

187. US 867.00/968. Knabenshue to Secretary of State via Paris, no. 29 (19 October 1919). [BACK]

188. US 867.00/1094. The Supreme Commission of the Palestine Assemblies to the “Great Government of the United States, Care of the Respected American Representative in Jerusalem” (Haifa, 27 November 1919). [BACK]

189. Shaw and Shaw, 344–50. [BACK]

190. An article that appeared in the Morning Post noted, crediting Enver with the Anatolian resistance, “If Enver has now got the ear of a section of the Arab people it is owing to the mistakes of our diplomacy.” Morning Post, 20 December 1919. Quoted in Hollis to Secretary of State (23 December 1919). [BACK]

191. The book was translated by Hamza Tahir and ‘Abd al-Wahhab ‘Azzam. See Landau, Pan-Islam, 80. [BACK]

192. Zeine, Struggle, 136. [BACK]

193. Y. Porath, The Emergence of the Palestinian-Arab National Movement, 1918–1929 (London: Frank Cass, 1974), 160–65. [BACK]

194. Bayur, 3 (pt. 4): 360. [BACK]