1. Quoted in Chalk and Jonassohn, Genocide, 8.

2. Ibid., 10. For the text of the Convention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 29 December 1948, see ibid., 44-49.

3. T. Taylor, quoted in Wasserstrom, “Laws of War,” 495.

4. Chalk and Jonassohn, Genocide, 10.

5. Ibid., 11.

6. Ibid.

7. R. Smith, quoted in Chalk and Jonassohn, Genocide, 22.

8. Ibid., 23.

9. Horowitz, quoted in Chalk and Jonassohn, Genocide, 14.

10. For details, see Carlton, War and Ideology.

11. Horowitz, quoted in Chalk and Jonassohn, Genocide, 13.

12. The intensity of the Soviet military operations is suggested by the number of Afghans who fled abroad. By the middle of 1981 about 2 million Afghans had fled to Pakistan alone. By the end of 1984 the figure had exceeded 3 million. In 1991 the total number of Afghan refugees abroad was estimated to be 5,670,000. (See Azari, “Afghan Refugees”: Humanitarian Assistance Program, 4.) A more recent study indicates that by the end of 1981, 2.3 million Afghans had fled to Pakistan alone. The total number of refugees is calculated to be “more than 3 million in Pakistan and as many as 3 million others in Iran” (Ruiz, Left Out in the Cold, 2, 3). More Afghans fled to Pakistan than to Iran. Afghans fled to Iran from the three western provinces of Herat, Farah, and Nimroz; Afghans from the rest of the country, especially the eastern frontier provinces, took refuge in Pakistan. This explains why the Pashtuns constitute the highest percentage (85 percent) of the refugee population in Pakistan (Sliwinski, “Afghanistan 1978-87,” 18). The total figure for Afghan refugees in Pakistan and Iran are official and therefore cannot be considered accurate; still, Afghan refugees are clearly the world’s largest group in absolute terms as well as in proportion to the total number of Afghans, who numbered 15.5 million before the invasion.

Period	To Pakistan	To Iran	To other destinations
Source: Amstutz, Afghanistan, 224
Through 1978	18,000	?	?
Through 1979	389,000	?	?
Through 1980	1,232,000	250,000	?
Through 1981	2,500,000	?	?
Through 1982	2,700,000	500,000	?
Through 1983	2,900,000	650,000	?
Through 1984	3,200,000	850,000	70,000

13. A Soviet Tajik deserter quoted in Laber and Rubin, A Nation Is Dying, 18. According to the soldier, “When the drunk commander found out that his brother and three soldiers were killed by mujahideen, he took the whole commando unit at night. He went to the village and butchered, slaughtered all the village[rs]. They cut off the heads and killed perhaps 2,000 people.” To terrorize the people, the officers of the invading army also ordered the brutal killing of individuals. In 1983 they assembled the people of the village of Babyan in Logar; they then singled out Qazi Fatih, a retired judge who looked like a mulla. They tied him to a tank, then dragged him behind it at high speed. The Qazi was smashed to pieces in front of the villagers. See Alam, “Violation of Human Rights,” 7.

14. Carmichael, History of Russia; Lourie, Predicting Russia’s Future.

15. Girardet, Afghanistan.

16. Wasserstrom, “Laws of War,” 484.

17. T. Taylor, quoted in Wasserstrom, “Laws of War,” 484.

18. Laber and Rubin, Helsinki Watch, 53.

19. For details, see International Afghanistan Hearing, 173.

20. Ibid., 174.

21. Ibid., 175.

22. Ibid., 176.

23. Laber and Rubin, Helsinki Watch, 23.