1. Garrett Eckbo, "North vs. South," Arts and Architecture I, no. 4 (1982): 40. [BACK]

2. William Wurster, cited by Greg Hise, "Building Design as Social Art: The Public Architecture of William Wurster, 1935-1950," in An Everyday Modernism: The Houses of William Wurster , ed. Marc Treib (San Francisco: Museum of Modern Art; Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 145. [BACK]

3. Christopher Tunnard, "Modern Gardens for Modern Houses," Landscape Architecture 32, no. 2 (January 1942): 60. [BACK]

4. "A Model Block of Suburban Homes," thesis, Harvard University, 15 February 1938 (typescript, I, courtesy Garrett Eckbo). Eckbo's intention to represent the "World of Day-after-Tomorrow" was a direct reference to the 1939 New York World's Fair "Tomorrowtown." An exhibition at New York's Museum of Modern Art had triggered a polemic on "Tomorrowtown's" lack of modernity, comparing it to the Stuttgart Werkbund of 1927. The captions of one exhibition panel read "New York World's Fair 1937 Designs . . . Today Looking toward Yesterday?" and "Stuttgart-Weissenhof Werkbund Exposition 1927 . . . Yesterday Looking toward Tomorrow?" Eckbo included a reproduction of this panel in his scrapbook for Contempoville. See Henry-Russell Hitchcock's letter to the editors of American Architect and Architecture 151, no. 12 (December 1937): 16, 102. [BACK]

5. See Detail Plans Lots 4-12-20, Contempoville, Los Angeles World Fair 1945 (Eckbo papers, College of Environmental Design Documents Collection, University of California at Berkeley [hereafter cited as Eckbo papers, Documents Collection]). [BACK]

6. Garrett Eckbo, "Hypothetical Superblock Park, 1938," in Landscape for Living , 178. [BACK]

7. Garrett Eckbo, "Outdoors and In: Gardens as Living Space." Magazine of Art 34, no. 8 (October 1941): 427. [BACK]

8. "I was prepared to design the whole landscape, but I didn't have this other vision, or understanding. I was still undisciplined" ( Landscape Architecture: The Profession in California, 1935-1940, and Telesis . Interviews conducted by Suzanne B. Riess, 1991 [Berkeley, Calif.: Regional Oral History Project, 1993], 28-29). [BACK]

9. Gutheim also instigated the opportunity for Eckbo to work on the landscape plan for Norman Bel Geddes's General Motors Pavilion at the 1939 New York World's Fair (drawings dated November 1938). While in Washington, the landscape architect also collaborated with architects Kastner and Berla on the Federal Building at the 1939 San Francisco fair, designing its south court. Isometric drawing dated 16 October 1938 (Eckbo's own notebooks and Eckbo papers, Documents Collection). Dan Kiley replaced Eckbo in Washington, he recalls, allowing him to meet Louis I. Kahn and Eero Saarinen and helping launch his career (conversation with the authors, Berkeley, 22 April 1996). [BACK]

10. See Garrett Eckbo, "Housing and Recreation." Arts and Architecture 63, no. 1 (January 1946): 34, and "Landscape Gardening II: Community Planting." Architectural Forum 86 (March 1946): 141. [BACK]

11. From Marie De L. Welch, "The Nomad Harvesters," in This Is Our Own (New York: Macmillan, 1940), 56. [BACK]

12. Frederic Delano, an advocate for Chicago's great advisory plan and later chairman of the committee for New York's comprehensive plan, fed his nephew's interest in planning. Frederic Delano directed the National Resources Committee, the first national planning agency, during the New Deal. See "The Urban Pattern," in Works Progress Administration American Guide Series, New York Panorama (New York: Random House, 1938), 412-13; and Paul Conkin, Tomorrow a New World: The New Deal Community Program (1959; reprint, New York: Da Capo Press, 1976), 66. [BACK]

13. Conkin, Tomorrow a New World , 38. [BACK]

14. Franklin D. Roosevelt, cited in Conkin, Tomorrow a New World , 84. [BACK]

15. "Such a romantic attitude is all too apparent among the American designers, who fail to see that the 'old swimming hole' needs lifeguards and pure water . . . or that the farm boy may be quite as interested in aviation or theatricals as his city cousin. On the other hand, there is the danger that—once recognizing these needs—the building or landscape designer (because of his own urban background and experience) will uncritically apply urban design standards to a rural problem" (Garrett Eckbo, Daniel U. Kiley, and James C. Rose, "Landscape Design in the Rural Environment," Architectural Record [August 1939]: 68). [BACK]

16. Press-Herald , Portland, Maine, 24 May 1936, cited in Conkin, Tomorrow a New World , 153. [BACK]

17. See Carey McWilliams, Factories in the Field (Boston: Little, Brown, 1939), 294-95. [BACK]

18. The State Relief Administration ( SERA ) first commissioned Paul Taylor to study the social conditions of the human river of agricultural laborers that flowed into California during the winter 1934-35. In 1935 Taylor invited photographer Dorothea Lange to join his team, thus marking the beginning of a long-lasting collaboration. Their report on the squalid state of life migrants had to endure is said to have influenced the federal government to enter this arena of emergency relief. See Sandra Phillips, "Dorothea Lange: An American Photographer," in Dorothea Lange: American Photographs , ed. Therese Thau Heyman, Sandra Phillips, John Szarkowski (San Francisco: San Francisco Museum of Modern Art and Chronicle Books, 1994), 22. [BACK]

19. McWilliams estimated the FSA attempted to provide assistance for 45,500 refugees in April 1938 ( Factories in the Field , 308). [BACK]

20. Talbot Hamlin, "Farm Security Administration: An Appraisal." Pencil Points (November 1941): 720. [BACK]

21. Alfred Roth, "Co-operative Farm Community," in Die Neue Architektur , 61-70. Roth selected Richard Neutra's 1935 experimental school in Los Angeles as the other representative of "new" American architecture (105-14). [BACK]

22. Garrett Eckbo, letter to the authors, 28 May 1996. [BACK]

23. Hamlin, "Farm Security Administration," 710. [BACK]

24. Garrett Eckbo, "Site Planning," Architectural Forum 76, no. 5 (May 1942): 263. [BACK]

25. See Eckbo, "Outdoors and In," 422; Garrett Eckbo, "Space and People," Architectural Record (January 1950): 72. [BACK]

26. "It is interesting to note how quickly social integration has followed physical integration in the new towns by TVA , FSA , and in the greenbelt towns of the former Resettlement Administration. . . . The recent western projects of the Farm Security Administration—while of course designed for the landless migrants—clearly indicate the physical advantages of a concentration of housing facilities" (Eckbo, Kiley, and Rose, "Landscape Design in the Rural Environment," 71-72). [BACK]

27. Albert Good, "Overnight and Organized Camp Facilities," in Park and Recreation Structures (Part III), I. [BACK]

28. For examples of National Park Service large organized camps see "Camp Layout" in Park and Recreation Structures (Part III), 114-19 (Eckbo, Kiley, and Rose, "Landscape Design in the Rural Environment," 74). [BACK]

29. Eckbo, Kiley, and Rose, "Landscape Design in the Rural Environment," 74. [BACK]

30. McWilliams, Factories in the Field , 324-25. [BACK]

31. See Elizabeth Mock, Built in USA since 1932 (New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1945), 60-61; Hamlin, "Farm Security Administration," 712-14. [BACK]

32. Hamlin, "Farm Security Administration," 713. [BACK]

34. Vernon DeMars, "Social Planning for Western Agriculture," Task , no. 2 (1941): 9. [BACK]

35. A phenomenon expressed within the process of hiring also, as McWilliams pointed out: "The established pattern has been somewhat as follows: to bring in successive minority groups; to exploit them until the advantages of exploitation have been exhausted; and then to expel them in favor of more readily exploitable material. In this manner the Chinese, the Japanese, the Filipinos, and the Mexicans have, as it were, been run through the hopper. . . . The latest army being recruited [was] from the stricken dust-bowl areas, from Oklahoma, Texas, Arkansas. . . . They came in without expense to the growers; they were excellent workers; they brought their families; they were so impoverished that they would work for whatever wage was offered" ( Factories in the Field , 305-6). [BACK]

36. "There was never a 'regional or traditional' expression specified. Budgets and functional limits were strict. The few buildings were strictly functional. Most expressive or 'far out' were the two-story row house units which Burt [Cairns] and Vernon [DeMars] developed. They were like a touch of European modern in the western landscape" (Garrett Eckbo, letter to the authors, 28 May 1996). [BACK]

37. See Weslaco file, Farm Security Administration (Eckbo papers, Documents Collection), and Eckbo, "Space and People," 72. [BACK]

38. A principle Eckbo described as being inspired by Mies's architectural plans. See the caption to his garden for Mr. and Mrs. John Reid, Eckbo, "Space and People," 70. [BACK]

39. Eckbo, "Site Planning," 266. [BACK]

40. Hamlin, "Farm Security Administration," 711. [BACK]

41. Garrett Eckbo, "Permanent Row Housing in Taft, California, 1941," in Landscape for Living , 206-7. [BACK]

42. Eckbo, "Site Planning," 267. [BACK]

43. Eckbo, "Outdoors and In," 425-26. [BACK]

44. Eckbo, "Landscape Gardening II," 143. [BACK]

45. Eckbo, "Site Planning," 266. [BACK]

46. Garrett Eckbo, "Community Recreation Space in Ceres, Central Valley, California, 1940," in Landscape for Living , 179. [BACK]

47. According to the FSA camps "constitution," residents served as the legislative and judiciary bodies, the manager acted as the executive, and all "worked together in an ideal microcosmic democracy" (Walter Stein, "A New Deal Experiment with Guided Democracy: The FSA Migrant Camps in California," Historical Papers [Toronto: Canadian Historical Association, 1970], 140). [BACK]

48. Conkin, Tomorrow a New World , 186. An opinion also supported by McWilliams: "Although admittedly inadequate, the camps which have thus far been established are highly important institutions and foreshadow the appearance of a new rural social order in California" ( Factories in the Field , 300). [BACK]

49. See Stein, "A New Deal Experiment," 136. [BACK]

50. Eckbo, Kiley, and Rose, "Landscape Design in the Rural Environment," 70. [BACK]

51. See Cletus Daniel, Bitter Harvest: A History of California Farmworkers, 1870-1941 (1981; reprint, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982), 270. Furthermore, to avoid political liability, agencies such as the WPA ruled as of 1935, that men could be released from work relief to report for work in the fields, regardless of the probable lower wage scale on the farm (Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce, Report of Special Labor Committee, 22 November 1935, cited in Daniel, Bitter Harvest , 272, 338 n. 18; McWilliams, Factories in the Field , 286-96). [BACK]

52. "Before WW II camps residents were . . . Okies and Arkies. After they were black and chicano. (I went to see.)" (Garrett Eckbo, letter to the authors, 6 June 1996). [BACK]

53. Daniel, Bitter Harvest , 284. [BACK]

54. See Catherine Bauer, "Outline of War Housing," Task , no. 4 (1943): 5. [BACK]

55. Eliel and Eero Saarinen, with Robert Swanson, designed 476 rental units for Center Line, Michigan, in 1941. See "5 House Types, One and Two Story, One to Three Bedrooms," Architectural Forum 75, no. 10 (October 1941): 229-31 and "Center Line, Michigan: 476 Permanent Units—Rental," Architectural Forum 76, no. 5 (May 1942): 281-84. In May 1942 Gropius and Breuer completed the 250 homes of Aluminum Terrace in New Kensington. See Isabel Bayley "New Kensington Saga," Task no. 5 (Spring 1944): 28-36. For Buckminster Fuller's "Dymaxion Deployment Unit"—a galvanized steel demountable tent—see "Building for Defense . . . 1,000 Houses a Day at $1,200 Each," Architectural Forum 74, no. 6 (June 1941): 425-29. On Wurster's defense housing at Vallejo and Sacramento, see Hise, "Building Design as Social Art," 138-63. [BACK]

56. Catherine Bauer, transcript of Town Meeting of the Air , in "War-time Housing in Defense Area," Architect and Engineer (October 1942): 33. [BACK]

57. See Lane Ryo Hirabayashi and James A. Hirabayashi, "Behind Barbed Wire," in The View from Within: Japanese American Art from the Internment Camps, 1942-45 (Los Angeles: Japanese American National Museum, UCLA Wight Art Gallery, UCLA Asian American Studies Center, 1992), 52. [BACK]

58. Garrett Eckbo, "Trailer Housing Patterns in San Diego and Vallejo, California, 1942," in Landscape for Living , 204-5. [BACK]

59. Eckbo, "Space and People," 75. [BACK]

60. Eckbo, "Site Planning," 265. [BACK]

61. Garrett Eckbo, "Farm Security Administration Projects," Arts and Architecture I, no. 4 (1982): 42. [BACK]

62. "Principles embodied in the drawings." See text accompanying plans for Flexible Co-op (Eckbo papers, Documents Collection). [BACK]

63. Your Home in Ladera , Peninsula Housing Association brochure, 1947. Cited in Stephen White, Building in the Garden: The Architecture of Joseph Allen Stein in India and California (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 92. [BACK]

64. Your Home in Ladera , 5, 12. [BACK]

65. For the revised version of Ladera see "The Ladera Project," Arts and Architecture (July 1951). [BACK]

66. "Mutual Housing Association: A Project for Five Hundred Families in Crestwood Hills," Arts and Architecture 65 (September 1948): 30. [BACK]

67. Garrett Eckbo, General Tree Plan (Community Homes), June 1948 (Eckbo papers, Documents Collection). [BACK]

68. Garrett Eckbo, "Co-operative Housing in the San Fernando Valley, Los Angeles, California, 1945-49," in Landscape for Living , 218-21. [BACK]

69. See Gregory Ain's comments in "Designs for Postwar Living," Arts and Architecture 60 (August 1943): 27. [BACK]

70. This description of Ain's Mar Vista designs equally applies to his planning for the houses of Community Homes. See "One Hundred Houses," 41. [BACK]

71. Eckbo, Landscape for Living , 221. [BACK]

72. See "If you are thinking of organizing a co-operative community. . . . " in "Facts and Figures," House and Garden , February 1951, 110. [BACK]

73. Eckbo, "Site Planning," 265. [BACK]

74. Vernon DeMars, "Co-operative Housing—An Appraisal," Progressive Architecture 32, no. 2 (February 1951): 64. [BACK]

75. Gregory Ain, cited by Esther McCoy in The Second Generation , 121. [BACK]

76. DeMars, "Co-operative Housing," 77. [BACK]

77. Gregory Ain, jury comment on "Designs for Postwar Living," 27. For Park Planned Homes, he instead sought to counter the rising costs of materials and construction with precut elements and jigs, such as those used to predrill holes in studs for wiring. He based the house plans on standard 12'x16' modules—a 12' module required only a single rafter size—and opted for longitudinal roof framing to eliminate beams over windows. Thus fenestration could extend fully to the ceiling. [BACK]

78. Eckbo commended Richard Neutra for assigning blame for the lackluster urban and suburban developments to this "trinity." See Eckbo's review, "Richard Neutra on Building: Mystery and Realities of the Site," Landscape Architecture 42, no. 1 (October 1951): 41. [BACK]

79. "One Hundred Houses," Arts and Architecture 65 (May 1948): 38, 40. [BACK]

80. See Arts and Architecture 65 (September 1948): n.p. [BACK]

81. "One Hundred Houses," 40. [BACK]

82. Ain, "Designs for Postwar Living," 25. [BACK]

83. Garrett Eckbo, "Cooperatives," Arts and Architecture I, no. 4 (1982): 42. [BACK]

84. Eckbo, "Co-operative Housing," 225. [BACK]

85. "A Landscape Architect Creates New Dimensions in Landscaping with Aluminum," Landscaping (May 1960): 15. [BACK]

86. Eckbo, "Co-operative Housing," 225. [BACK]

87. For the typical garden plans, see Eckbo, "Co-operative Housing," 226. The above-mentioned garden is described by Virginia Scallon in "Now Is The Time and This Is The House . . . To Build," The Californian , July 1947, 49. [BACK]

88. Eckbo, "Cooperatives," 42. [BACK]

89. See "Mutual Housing Association," 32. [BACK]

90. Conversation with the authors, Berkeley, 31 May 1996. [BACK]

91. Eckbo, "North vs. South," 40. [BACK]

92. Eckbo, "Space and People," 74. [BACK]

93. See Herbert Muschamp, "Can New Urbanism Find Room for the Old?" New York Times , 2 June 1996, 27. [BACK]