1. The best general secondary source on psychology in world war is James Herbert Capshew, "Psychology on the March: American Psychologists and World War II" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1986). Other useful overviews are Peter Buck, "Adjusting to Military Life: The Social Sciences Go to War, 1941-1950," in Military Enterprise and Technological Change, ed. Merritt Roe Smith (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1985), 203-252, and Nikolas Rose, Governing the Soul: The Shaping of the Private Self (London: Routledge, 1990), pt. 1. [BACK]

2. J. McKeen Cattell, "Retrospect: Psychology as a Profession," Journal of Consulting Psychology I (January-February 1937):1. [BACK]

3. For a discussion of how World War I advanced the professionalization efforts of psychologists, see Thomas M. Camfield, "Psychologists at War: The History of American Psychology and the First World War" (Ph.D. diss., University of Texas, 1969); Franz Samelson, "Putting Psychology on the Map: Ideology and Intelligence Testing," in Psychology in Social Context, ed. Allan R. Buss (New York: Irvington Publishers, 1979), 103-168; and Franz Samelson, "World War I Intelligence Testing and the Development of Psychology," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 13 (July 1977):274-282. For a consideration of World War I testing that focuses specifically on the negotiating process between psychological experts and the military, see John Carson, "Army Alpha, Army Brass, and the Search for Army Intelligence," Isis 84 (1993):278-309. [BACK]

4. For background on Yerkes's work, see Donna Haraway, "A Pilot Plant for Human Engineering: Robert Yerkes and the Yale Laboratories of Primate

Biology, 1924-1942," in Primate Visions: Gender, Race, and Nature in the World of Modern Science (New York: Routledge, 1989,) 59-83. [BACK]

5. Karl M. Dallenbach, "The Emergency Committee in Psychology, National Research Council," American Journal of Psychology 59 (October 1946):497. [BACK]

6. "War cabinet" was Leonard Carmichael's phrase. See Capshew, "Psychology on the March," 40 n. 52. [BACK]

7. Robert M. Yerkes, "Psychology and Defense," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 84 (June 1941 ):536. [BACK]

7. Robert M. Yerkes, "Psychology and Defense," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 84 (June 1941 ):536.

8. Ibid. [BACK]

7. Robert M. Yerkes, "Psychology and Defense," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 84 (June 1941 ):536.

9. Ibid., 541. [BACK]

10. Capshew, "Psychology on the March," 45. [BACK]

11. Gordon W. Allport, "Psychological Service for Civilian Morale," Journal of Consulting Psychology 5 (September-October 1941 ):235. [BACK]

11. Gordon W. Allport, "Psychological Service for Civilian Morale," Journal of Consulting Psychology 5 (September-October 1941 ):235.

12. Ibid. [BACK]

11. Gordon W. Allport, "Psychological Service for Civilian Morale," Journal of Consulting Psychology 5 (September-October 1941 ):235.

13. Ibid., 238. [BACK]

14. Gordon Allport to Alice Bryan, 5 April 1941, HUG 4118.10, folder: "1938-48, Bro-Bz," GA Papers. [BACK]

15. Charles William Bray, Psychology and Military Proficiency: A History of the Applied Psychology Panel of the National Defense Research Committee (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1948), v. This glowing assessment was made by the navy representative to the National Defense Resource Council, Captain Lybrand Palmer Smith. [BACK]

16. "Some Notes on the History of the American Psychological Association, Remarks on the Occasion of the Seventy-fifth Anniversary of the Association, September 3, 1967," Correspondence 1919-1965, box 80, folder 1679, EB Papers. For a useful summary of the war's impact on the American Psychological Association, see James H. Capshew and Ernest R. Hilgard, "The Power of Service: World War II and Professional Reform in the American Psychological Association," in The American Psychological Association: A Historical Perspective, ed. Rand B. Evans, Virginia S. Sexton, and Thomas C. Cadwallader (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1992), 149-175. [BACK]

17. For more on the screening of immigrants and its important connection to psychiatry's work in World War I, see Rebecca Schwartz Greene, "The Role of the Psychiatrist in World War II" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1977), 16-30. [BACK]

18. "American Psychiatric Association Membership Figures, 1873-Present." [BACK]

18. "American Psychiatric Association Membership Figures, 1873-Present."

19. Ibid. [BACK]

20. "American Psychological Association Membership Totals, 1892-Present." [BACK]

21. Gladys C. Schwesinger, "Wartime Organizational Activities of Women Psychologists, II. The National Council of Women Psychologists," Journal of Consulting Psychology 7 (November-December 1943):300. For a discussion of the experience of female psychologists during World War II, see James H. Capshew and Alejandra C. Laszlo," 'We would not take no for an answer': Women Psychologists and Gender Politics During World War II," Journal of Social

Issues 42 (1986): 157-180, followed by comments by Alice I. Bryan and Cynthia P. Deutsch. [BACK]

22. While the population increased by 57 percent between the mid-1940s and the mid-1970s, American Psychological Association membership shot up 850 percent. For a statistical overview of the growth of the psychological profession during these years, see Albert R. Gilgen, American Psychology Since World War II: A Profile of the Discipline (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982), 21, table 1. [BACK]

23. For more on the work of psychological experimentalists, see Bray, Psychology and Military Proficiency. For more on Skinner's Project Pigeon, see B. F. Skinner, "Pigeons in a Pelican," in Theories of Personality: Primary Sources and Research, 2nd ed., ed. Gradner Lindzey, Calvin S. Hall, and Martin Manosevitz (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1973), 399-413, and Capshew, "Psychology, on the March," 135-150. [BACK]

24. Letters by Gregory Bateson and Harold Lasswell quoted in Virginia Yans-McLaughlin, "Science, Democracy, and Ethics: Mobilizing Culture and Personality for World War II," History of Anthropology 4 (1986): 196-197. [BACK]

25. For examples, see Eli Ginzberg, Breakdown and Recovery, vol. 2 of The Ineffective Soldier: Lessons for Management and the Nation (New York: Columbia University, Press, 1959), 3; Alexander H. Leighton, The Governing of Men: General Principles and Recommendations Based on Experience at a Japanese Relocation Camp (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1945), 358; Daniel Lerner, Sykewar: Psychological Warfare Against Germany, D-Day to VE-Day (New York: George W. Stewart, 1949), 324; Samuel A. Stouffer et al., The American Soldier: Adjustment During Army Life, vol. I of Studies in Social Psychology in World War II (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1949), vii. [BACK]

26. See, for example, "Memorandum for the Chief of Special Services, Subject: Some Reflections on the Program of the Research Division," 3 June 1942, HUG (FP) 31.8, box 2, folder: "Research Problems," SS Papers. [BACK]

27. "The Psychiatric Approach in Problems of Community Management," American Journal of Psychiatry 100 (November 1946):328-333. [BACK]

28. Samuel Stouffer to Paul Lazarsfeld, 30 November 1945, HUG (FP) 31.8, box l, folder: "Columbia University," SS Papers. Stouffer's 1930 doctoral dissertation, which compared statistical and life history techniques in attitude research, was typical of the interwar effort to advance and legitimate social science by making it conform to the perceived objectivity of methodological standards including quantitative measurement, value neutrality, and emotional detachment from the subject. For a discussion of this era in the University of Chicago sociology, department, where Stouffer was a student, see Dorothy Ross, The Origins of American Social Science (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 428-437. [BACK]

29. Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion (New York: Macmillan, 1922), chap. 1. [BACK]

30. For an extended discussion of the contradiction between scientific and democratic ideals in the history of academic political science, see David Ricci, The Tragedy of Political Science: Politics, Scholarship, and Democracy (New Ha-

ven: Yale University Press, 1984). Ricci's chapter 3 touches on the World War I experience. [BACK]

31. An overview of the early intellectual history of crowd psychology. can be found in Jaap van Ginneken, Crowds, Psychology, and Politics, 1871-1899 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992). [BACK]

32. William McDougall, Group Mind: A Sketch of the Principles of Collective Psychology, With Some Attempt to Apply Them to the Interpretation of National Life and Character (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1920); Everett Dean Martin, The Behavior of Crowds: A Psychological Study (New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1920). A general discussion of the importation of crowd psychology into U.S. social science can be found in Eugene E. Leach," 'Mental Epidemics': Crowd Psychology and American Culture, 1890-1940," American Studies 33 (Spring 1992):5-29. [BACK]

33. For useful treatments of Freudian social thought, see Louise E. Hoffman, "From Instinct to Identity: Implications of Changing Psychoanalytic Concepts of Social Life from Freud to Erikson," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 18 (April 1982):130-146; and "The Ideological Significance of Freud's Social Thought," in Psychology in Twentieth-Century Thought and Society, ed. Mitchell G. Ash and William R. Woodward (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 253-269. [BACK]

34. Reba N. Softer, Ethics and Society in England: The Revolution in the Social Sciences, 1870-1914 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), esp. chap. 10. Soffer singles out social psychology as the single "revisionist" and counterrevolutionary intellectual tradition in an era of otherwise "revolutionary" and progressive social science. [BACK]

35. Herbert Hoover, American Individualism (New York: Garland Publishing, 1922), 24-25. [BACK]

36. Harold D. Lasswell, Psychopathology and Politics (New York: Viking Press, 1930). [BACK]

37. Harold D. Lasswell, "What Psychiatrists and Political Scientists Can Learn from One Another," Psychiatry 1 (February 1938):37. [BACK]

38. For examples of how an orientation toward "prevention" opened a plethora of new opportunities, see William Menninger, "The Role of Psychiatry, in the World Today," in A Psychiatrist for a Troubled World: Selected Papers of William C. Menninger, M.D., ed. Bernard H. Hall (New York: Viking, 1967), 568-581, originally published in American Journal of Psychiatry. 104 (September 1947):155-163; William C. Menninger, Psychiatry in a Troubled World: Yesterday's War and Today's Challenge (New York: Macmillan, 1948), pt. 2. [BACK]

39. Barbara Sicherman, "The Quest for Mental Health in America, 1880-1917," Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1967 (New York: Arno Press, 1980). [BACK]

40. Lasswell, Psychopathology and Politics, 198. [BACK]

41. Leighton, The Governing of Men, viii. [BACK]

42. The formal title of the project was the Bureau of Sociological Research. For details on the background and evolution of the project, see Leighton, The Governing of Men, especially the appendix titled "Applied Anthropology in a

Dislocated Community" by Alexander Leighton and Edward Spicer. Other sources include "The Psychiatric Approach in Problems of Community Management," 328-333; and Edward H. Spicer, "The Use of Social Scientists by the War Relocation Authority," Applied Anthropology 5 (Spring 1946): 16-36. [BACK]

43. Leighton's team was not alone in attempting to bring psychological insight to the challenge of military occupation. Kurt Lewin put his leadership and group training skills and theories to use in this area. See "Training of Social Administrators in the Field of Leadership and Social Management," n.d., c. 1943. This document specified the human management tasks involved in military occupation. HUG 4118.10, folder: "Lewin, Kurt, 1944-45," GA Papers. [BACK]

44. Leighton, The Governing of Men, 377. [BACK]

45. Tom Sasaki, Chica Sugino, Hisako Fujii, Misao Furuta, Iwao Ishino, Mary Kinoshita, June Kushino, Yoshiharu Matsumoto, Florence Mohri, Akiko Nishimoto, Jyuichi Sato, James Sera, Gene Sogioka, George Yamaguchi, and Toshio Yatsushiro were among the project's staff members. [BACK]

46. Leighton, The Governing of Men, 44. [BACK]

46. Leighton, The Governing of Men, 44.

47. Ibid., 366. [BACK]

46. Leighton, The Governing of Men, 44.

48. Ibid., 315. [BACK]

46. Leighton, The Governing of Men, 44.

49. Ibid., 362. [BACK]

50. For an example of this typical view of morale, see John Rawlings Rees, The Shaping of Psychiatry by. War (New York: W. W. Norton, 1945), 82-88. [BACK]

51. Leonard Carmichael in A History of Psychology. in Autobiography, vol. 5, ed. Edwin G. Boring and Gardner Lindzey (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1967), 49. [BACK]

52. Harold D. Lasswell, "Political and Psychological Warfare," in Propaganda in War and Crisis: Materials for American Policy, ed. Daniel Lerner (New York: George W. Stewart, 1951), 264. [BACK]

52. Harold D. Lasswell, "Political and Psychological Warfare," in Propaganda in War and Crisis: Materials for American Policy, ed. Daniel Lerner (New York: George W. Stewart, 1951), 264.

53. Ibid., 261-266. [BACK]

54. For example, military intelligence agencies wanted to know how U.S. citizens felt about martial law, the loyalty of various racial and ethnic groups, and how far military policy-makers could go with security restrictions before overstepping the bounds of democracy. For obvious reasons, they could not make these needs public, but were creative in obtaining this information from other government agencies, or private organizations. See letter from unnamed official in Honolulu's 14 ND Intelligence Office to Elmo Wilson, 16 August 1942, HUG (FP) 31.8, box 1, folder: "Miscellaneous (2 of 2)," SS Papers. [BACK]

55. Brett Gary, personal communication, 17 October 1991. [BACK]

56. Brett Gary, "Mass Communications Research, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Imperatives of War, 1939-1945," Research Reports from the Rockefeller Archive Center, Spring 1991 (North Tarrytown, N.Y.: Rockefeller Archive Center), 3-5. [BACK]

57. Hadley Cantril to John Marshall, 1 May 1947, Record Group 1.1, series 200R, box 271, folder 3226, RF Archives. [BACK]

58. For a sympathetic overview of the concept, including its historical development and application during World War II, see Margaret Mead, "The Study of National Character," in The Policy Sciences: Recent Developments in

Scope and Method, ed. Daniel Lerner and Harold D. Lasswell (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1951 ), 70-85. [BACK]

59. Franz Alexander, Our Age of Unreason: A Study of the Irrational Forces in Social Life, rev. ed. (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1951, originally published 1942); Erich Fromm, Escape from Freedom (New York: Avon Books, 1941); Karen Homey, The Neurotic Personality of Our Time (New York: W. W. Norton, 1937). Harry Stack Sullivan's books were not published until after World War II, but as president of the William Alanson White Foundation, editor of its journal, Psychiatry, and key figure in World War II psychiatry, Sullivan's "culture and personality," perspective and his commitment to making psychiatry useful during the wartime emergency, were widely known. For an unsympathetic treatment of the neo-Freudians as an example of "conformist psychology," see Russell Jacoby, Social Amnesia: A Critique of Conformist Psychology. from Adler to Laing (Boston: Beacon Press, 1975), esp. chap. 3. [BACK]

60. An excellent overview of their wartime efforts can be found in Yans-McLaughlin, "Science, Democracy, and Ethics," 184-217. An overview of the culture and personality school over several decades is Milton Singer, "A Survey of Culture and Personality Theory and Research," in Studying Personality Cross-Culturally, ed. Bert Kaplan (New York: Harper & Row, 1961), 9-90. [BACK]

61. Edward Sapir, "Why Cultural Anthropology Needs the Psychiatrist," Psychiatry 1 (February 1938):10. [BACK]

62. Gregory Bateson, "Morale and National Character," in Civilian Morale, ed. Goodwin Watson (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1942), 84-85. [BACK]

63. Geoffrey Gorer, "The Scientific Study of National Character," unpublished paper, quoted in H. V. Dicks, "Some Psychological Studies of the German Character," in Psychological Factors of Peace and War, ed. T. H. Pear (New York: The Philosophical Society, 1950), 197-198. [BACK]

64. Lawrence K. Frank, "Society as the Patient," American Journal of Sociology, 42 (November 1936):335. This and numerous other articles by Frank advocating the "psychocultural approach" were reprinted in Lawrence K. Frank, Society as the Patient: Essays on Culture and Personality (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1948). Twenty years later, Frank noted that psychology's incredible progress was indebted to the idea of "society as patient." Lawrence K. Frank, "Psychology and Social Order," in The Human Meaning of the Social Sciences, ed. Daniel Lerner (New York: Meridian Books, 1959), 214-241. [BACK]

65. Edward A. Strecker, Beyond the Clinical Frontiers: A Psychiatrist Views Crowd Behavior (New York: W. W. Norton, 1940), 84, 180. [BACK]

66. Richard M. Brickner, Is Germany Incurable? (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1943), 30, 45. [BACK]

66. Richard M. Brickner, Is Germany Incurable? (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1943), 30, 45.

67. Ibid., 307. [BACK]

68. Margaret Mead, And Keep Your Powder Dry: An Anthropologist Looks at America (New York: William Morrow, 1942), 261. See also Mead's introduction to Brickner's Is Germany Curable? for another typical statement about the great wartime responsibilities and capabilities of social scientists. [BACK]

69. Bruno Bettelheim to Gordon Allport, 16 August 1943, HUG 4118.20, box 4, folder 109, GA Papers. [BACK]

70. Otto Klineberg, "A Science of National Character," Journal of Social Psychology 19 (1944):147-162. For a methodological critique of the concept following the war, see Maurice L. Farber, "The Problem of National Character: A Methodological Analysis," Journal of Psychology 30 (October 1950):307-316, reprinted in Social Scientists and International Affairs: A Case for a Sociology. of Social Science, ed. Elisabeth T. Crawford and Albert D. Biderman (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1969), 207-213. [BACK]

71. For an overview of the work of the Yale Institute of Human Relations, see Mark A. May, Toward a Science of Human Behavior: A Survey of the Work of the Institute of Human Relations Through Two Decades, 1929-1949 (New Haven: Yale University, 1950); and J. G. Morawski, "Organizing Knowledge and Behavior at Yale's Institute of Human Relations," Isis 77 (1986):219-242. Many human links connected the "culture and personality" school with the Yale Institute. Geoffrey Gorer, for example, had been a member of the faculty at the Yale Institute of Human Relations. [BACK]

72. John Dollard et al., Frustration and Aggression (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1939). [BACK]

73. Ibid., 1, emphasis in original; May, Toward a Science of Human Behavior, 20. [BACK]

74. Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, trans. James Strachey (1930; reprint, New York: W. W. Norton, 1961). [BACK]

75. Sigmund Freud, "Why War?" in Collected Papers of Sigmund Freud, ed. James Strachey (New York: Basic Books, 1959), 5:283, 286-287. [BACK]

76. Mr. Frank to Mr. Edmund Day, 14 June 1932, Rockefeller Foundation internal memorandum, Record Group 1.1, series 200, box 67, folder 807, RF Archives. [BACK]

77. Alan Gregg, diary excerpt, 15 December 1941, Record Group 1.1, series 200, box 68, folder 812, RF Archives. [BACK]

78. "Memoranda for the Study of the Social Effects of War," 10 March 1942, Record Group 1.1, series 200, box 68, folder 813, RF Archives.

Several members of the Yale faculty also consulted to the Research Branch of the army's Morale Division (later called the Information and Education Division), and brought to this work a conviction that the business of army researchers was to "perform an important function in checking up continually on the frustrations which arise from Army life. We want to know exactly what they are and their real as well as apparent causes are. We want to know also the results in the form of aggression, open or devious, attempts to escape, passivity, and the like. In connection with aggression, it is particularly important to know under what circumstances it is directed in a socially serviceable way, i.e., against the enemy." "Notes on Research Discussions of Carl I. Hovland and John Dollard," 25-26 April 1942, pp. 5-6, HUG (FP) 31.8, box 2, folder: "Yale University," SS Papers. [BACK]

79. May, Toward a Science of Human Behavior, 31-32. [BACK]

80. Gardner Murphy, ed., Human Nature and Enduring Peace (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1945), 21. [BACK]

81. For other examples of frustration-aggression theory applied to war, see H. J. Eysenck, "War and Aggressiveness: A Survey of Social Attitude Studies," and Hilde Himmelweit, "Frustration and Aggression: A Review of Recent Ex-

perimental Work," in Psychological Factors in Peace and War, 49-81, 161-191. For a less sophisticated, but emphatically psychological analysis, see C. S. Bluemel, War, Politics, and Insanity: In Which the Psychiatrist Looks at the Politician (Denver: The World Press, 1950). Bluemel considered political leadership as practically equivalent to mental illness and war as the direct product of leaders' sick personalities, especially their characteristic obsessiveness and need for dominance. [BACK]

82. John Dollard, "Yale's Institute of Human Relations: What Was It?" Ventures (Winter 1964), 32, Record Group 1.1, series 200, box 67, folder 804, RF Archives. This article is also quoted in Morawski, "Organizing Knowledge and Behavior at Yale's Institute of Human Relations," 241. [BACK]

83. Lerner, Sykewar, 43; and also the Psychological Warfare Division "Standing Directive for Psychological Warfare," 403-417. [BACK]

84. Lerner, Sykewar, 69-70, 91 n. 1. [BACK]

85. In addition to the "culture and personality" school, this approach to Germany in particular found inspiration in the work of Kurt Lewin. See, for example, the 1936 article "Some Social-Psychological Differences Between the United States and Germany," in Kurt Lewin, Resolving Social Conflicts: Selected Papers on Group Dynamics (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1948), 3-33. [BACK]

86. Lerner, Sykewar, 121-124. Dicks developed the typology with the assistance of University of Chicago sociologist Edward Shils. [BACK]

87. Lerner, Sykewar, 138. [BACK]

88. Henry V. Dicks, "German Personality Traits and National Socialist Ideology: A War-Time Study of German Prisoners of War," in Propaganda in War and Crisis, 102-104. [BACK]

89. Eisenhower letter to Psychological Warfare Division Brigadier General, Robert A. McClure, quoted in Lerner, Sykewar, 286. [BACK]

90. Lerner, Sykewar, chap. 11. [BACK]

91. Alexander H. Leighton and Morris Edward Opler, "Psychiatry and Applied Anthropology in Psychological Warfare Against Japan," American Journal of Psychoanalysis 6 (1946):25. [BACK]

92. Even Leighton himself conceded this point. See Alexander H. Leighton, Human Relations in a Changing World: Observations on the Use of the Social Sciences (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1949), 55, 117. He notes too the utter failure of the Foreign Morale Analysis Division to effect the most momentous of all decisions in the war against Japan: dropping the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. According to their evidence of morale decline, such a drastic option was clearly unnecessary. See page 126. See also Carleton Mabee, "Margaret Mead and Behavioral Scientists in World War II: Problems in Responsibility, Truth, and Effectiveness," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 23 (January 1987):8-9. [BACK]

93. Hermann Spitzer, "Psychoanalytic Approaches to the Japanese Character," Psychoanalysis and the Social Sciences 1 (1947): 131-156. Hermann Spitzer and Ruth Benedict were responsible for compiling a comprehensive Bibliography of Articles and Books Relating to Japanese Psychology for the Office of War Information. See also Ruth F. Benedict, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Culture (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1946). [BACK]

94. Leighton, Human Relations in a Changing World, app. C. [BACK]

95. Jerome S. Bruner in A History of Psychology in Autobiography, vol. 7, ed. Gardner Lindzey (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Company, 1980), 93. For a general discussion of the U.S. Department of Agriculture Division of Program Surveys, see Jean M. Converse, Survey Research in the United States: Roots and Emergence 1890-1960 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 157-161. For a discussion of the administrative challenges that the morale experts faced in the U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey in Japan, see George H. H. Huey, "Some Principles of Field Administration in Large-Scale Surveys," Public Opinion Quarterly 11 (Summer 1947):254-263. [BACK]

96. For background on the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues and its role in World War II, see Dorwin Cartwright, "Social Psychology, in the United States During the Second World War," Human Relations 1 (1948):332-352; and Lorenz J. Finison, "The Psychological Insurgency: 1936-1945," Journal of Social Issues 42 (1986):21-33. [BACK]

97. See, for example, Helen Peak, "Observations on the Characteristics and Distribution of German Nazis," Psychological Monographs 59, no. 276 (1945), whole issue. This study had much in common with the Dicks's breakdown of the German population according to its psychological responses to Nazism. The final reports were: U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey, Morale Division, The Effects of Strategic Bombing on German Morale, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.: USSBS, 1946-47); and U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey, Morale Division, The Effects of Strategic Bombing on Japanese Morale (Washington, D.C.: USSBS, 1947). "The Morale Index" is described in detail in The Effects of Strategic Bombing on Japanese Morale, app. K, 201-204. [BACK]

98. Leighton, Human Relations in a Changing World, 74. [BACK]

99. For a brief summary of the Office of War Information mission, see Elmer Davis, "War Information," in Propaganda in War and Crisis, 274-277. [BACK]

100. This experience was a common one among wartime psychological experts. Jerome S. Bruner, a psychologist who worked in the Office of War Information Bureau of Overseas Intelligence as well as the Federal Communication Commission's Foreign Broadcast Monitoring (later Intelligence) Service and the Department of Agriculture's Division of Program Surveys, commented that no feedback was ever received about the mountains of research reports conscientiously sent to policy-makers in the War Department, the State Department, or the Office of Strategic Services. "We had the sense of sending our daily offering into the void," he noted. "The relation between research and policy at times seemed more political than practical." Jerome S. Bruner in A History of Psychology in Autobiography, 7:93, 95. [BACK]

101. Leonard Doob, "The Utilization of Social Scientists in the Overseas Branch of the Office of War Information," American Political Science Review 41 (August 1947):666. [BACK]

102. Very little is known about the Office of Strategic Services Psychological Division. The only discussion I could find in the secondary literature is in Carol Cina, "Social Science for Whom? A Structural History of Social Psychology" (Ph.D. diss., State University of New York, Stony Brook, 1981), 188-

208. Cina's Appendix C, on pages 368-393, includes the text of the ''OSS Generic Country Outline for Psychological Warfare." [BACK]

103. Far more information is available on the Office of Strategic Services Research and Analysis Branch, headed by historian William A. Langer from 1942 to 1946. Langer's operation was grand, involving around a thousand researchers in Washington and another five hundred around the world by the end of the war: mainly historians with a sprinkling of social scientists. In the postwar period Langer maintained his involvement with the newly founded Central Intelligence Agency and became a vocal proponent of having academic experts involved in the business of intelligence because, according to Langer, "the R and A Branch of the organization was the oldest and largest part of the OSS and proved to have the most lasting value." William Langer to R. Harris Smith, 12 January 1973, HUG (FP) 19.46, folder: "OSS 1967-72," William W. Langer Papers, Harvard University Archives, Cambridge, Massachusetts. See also William L. Langer, Up from the Ranks: The Autobiography of William L. Langer, typescript, 1975, chap. 9, later published with minor revisions as In and Out of the Ivory Tower: The Autobiography of William L. Langer (New York: Neale Watson Academic Publications, 1977); and William L. Langer, "Scholarship and the Intelligence Problem," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 92 (8 March 1948):43-45. [BACK]

104. Robert MacLeod letter to Gordon Allport, 9 October 1942, quoted in Cina, "Social Science for Whom?" 223. See also Gordon Allport to R. C. Tryon, 18 November 1942, and Gordon Allport to R. C. Tryon, 28 December 1942, HUG 4118.10, folder: "T, 1938-43," GA Papers. [BACK]

105. Robert Yerkes, "Man-Power and Military Effectiveness: The Case for Human Engineering," Journal of Consulting Psychology 5 (September-October 1941):206. For more on German psychology, see Ulfried Geuter, "German Psychology During the Nazi Period," in Psychology in Twentieth-Century Thought and Society, 166, 170, 174. For an extended discussion, see Geuter's The Professionalization of Psychology in Nazi Germany, trans. Richard Holmes (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), esp. chap. 3. The study of German psychological experts was an area of major initial effort for the Emergency Committee in Psychology which produced a confidential study in 1940 on the testing methods used by psychologists in the German army. See Dallenbach, "The Emergency Committee in Psychology," 572. Several other surveys and bibliographies about German psychological warfare and military psychology followed. See H. L. Ansbacher, "German Military Psychology," Psychological Bulletin 38 (June 1941):370-392; and Ladislas Farago, ed., German Psychological Warfare (New York: Committee on National Morale, 1941). [BACK]

106. Farago, ed., German Psychological Warfare, 79. [BACK]

107. For a description, see Capshew, "Psychology on the March," 87-94. Samples of the many different psychological tests that were utilized can be found in "History of the Assessment Schools in the United States"; Files 63-65; Entry 99, OSS History Office Collection; Record Group 226, Records of the Office of Strategic Services, National Archives, Washington, D.C. [BACK]

108. Quoted in Capshew, "Psychology on the March," 114 n. 37. [BACK]

109. Office of Strategic Services Assessment Staff, "The Assessment of

Men," in Propaganda in War and Crisis, 287. See also Office of Strategic Services, Assessment of Men: Selection of Personnel for the Office of Strategic Services (New York: Rinehart, 1948). [BACK]

110. Eugene Taylor, personal communication, 23 June 1991. See also Henry A. Murray in A History of Psychology in Autobiography, 5:306-307. [BACK]

111. Excerpt from Trustees' Confidential Report, May 1952, "Picking the Personality that Will Succeed," Record Group 1.2, series 205, box 3, folder 19, RF Archives. [BACK]

112. Subcommittee of the Senate Committee on Military Affairs, "Hearings on Science Legislation," October 1945-March 1946, pts. 1-6, 79th Cong., 1st sess., testimony of Brigadier General John Magruder, 899-901. [BACK]