1. Gordon Allport, "The Nature of Democratic Morale," in Civilian Morale, 18, emphasis in original. [BACK]

2. Farago, ed., German Psychological Warfare . [BACK]

3. Committee for National Morale letterhead, HUG 4118.10, folder: "1941-43, Co-Cz," GA Papers. A list of early members can also be found in Farago, ed., German Psychological Warfare. See also Mabee, "Margaret Mead and Behavioral Scientists in World War II," 4; and PAFP, testimony of Margaret Mead, 98-99. [BACK]

4. Farago, ed., German Psychological Warfare . [BACK]

5. Erik H. Erikson, Identity: Youth and Crisis (New York: W. W. Norton, 1968) 52. [BACK]

6. Erik Erikson, "On Nazi Mentality," in A Way of Looking at Things: Selected Papers from 1930 to 1980, Erik H. Erikson, ed. Stephen Schlein (New York: W. W. Norton, 1987), 342. [BACK]

7. Dallenbach, "The Emergency Committee in Psychology," 541. [BACK]

8. Gordon Allport in A History of Psychology in Autobiography, 5:16. [BACK]

9. Dallenbach, "The Emergency Committee in Psychology," 521-523. [BACK]

10. Watson, ed., Civilian Morale, vi. [BACK]

11. Mead, And Keep Your Powder Dry, 20-21, emphasis in original. [BACK]

11. Mead, And Keep Your Powder Dry, 20-21, emphasis in original.

12. Ibid., 24. [BACK]

11. Mead, And Keep Your Powder Dry, 20-21, emphasis in original.

13. Ibid., 25. [BACK]

14. Margaret Mead in A History of Psychology in Autobiography, vol. 6, ed. Gardner Lindzey (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1974), 295. Mead's inclusion in this highly selective series is itself evidence of how significant her contributions to psychology were. [BACK]

15. A draft of Blackberry Winter, quoted in Yans-McLaughlin, "Science, Democracy, and Ethics," 194. [BACK]

16. Yans-McLaughlin, "Science, Democracy, and Ethics," 194. [BACK]

17. Margaret Mead, "On Methods of Implementing a National Morale Program," Applied Anthropology 1 (October-December 1941):20-24. [BACK]

18. For discussions of And Keep Tour Powder Dry, see Richard Handler, "Boasian Anthropology and the Critique of American Culture," American Quarterly 42 (June 1990):252-273, and Yans-McLaughlin, "Science, Democracy., and Ethics," 204-207. [BACK]

19. Mead, And Keep Tour Powder Dry, 261. [BACK]

20. Yans-McLaughlin, "Science, Democracy, and Ethics," 197. [BACK]

21. For more on Mead's World War II work, see Mabee, "Margaret Mead and Behavioral Scientists in World War II," 3-13; and Yans-McLaughlin, "Science, Democracy, and Ethics," 184-217. [BACK]

22. Gordon Allport, "Morale, American Style," 2, 5, HUG 4118.50, box 1, folder 2, GA Papers. [BACK]

23. Gordon Allport, "Evidence for the State of National Morale," lecture given 29 October 1941, HUG 4118.50, box 1, folder 3, GA Papers. [BACK]

24. Gordon Allport, "Vision of the Democratic Personality," lecture at Cleveland College, 12 December 1951, HUG 4118.50, box 5, folder 176, GA Papers. [BACK]

25. Gordon Allport to Archibald MacLeish, 2 December 1941, HUG 4118.10, folder: "1941-43 Ma-Md," GA Papers. Allport was not alone in communicating findings about civilian morale to MacLeish's Office of Facts and Figures. Franz Alexander's Chicago Institute of Psychoanalysis did the same thing with the results of its morale studies. While such studies were a "special activity" for the Chicago Institute, strapped for researchers and clinicians due to the wartime personnel shortage, Alexander also acknowledged that the war had "certain stimulating effects, adding new lines to our regular work." See Franz Alexander to Alan Gregg, 4 February 1942, Record Group 1.1, series 216A, box 4, folder 40, RF Archives. [BACK]

26. Ralph Barton Perry, to Gordon Allport, 14 March 1944; Gordon All-port to Ralph Barton Perry, 15 March 1944; Ralph Barton Perry to Gordon Allport, 10 April 1945; HUG 4118.10, folder: "American Defense Harvard Group, 1944-45," GA Papers. [BACK]

27. The advertising industry, whose profiteering image placed it in jeopardy during the war years, made its own dramatic and very successful effort to stay on the right side of public opinion, consumer loyalty, and tax laws by demonstrating "the politics of sacrifice" in the patriotic ad campaigns run by the War Advertising Council in cooperation with the government's war mobilization agencies. See Mark H. Left, "The Politics of Sacrifice on the American Home Front in World War II," Journal of American History 77 (March 1991):1307-1312. [BACK]

28. Crawford and Biderman, eds., Social Scientists and International Affairs, 7. For a useful overview of survey research and its place in the federal government, both before and after World War II, see Converse, Survey Research in the United States. [BACK]

29. Tracy B. Kittredge memorandum, 6 August 1940, Record Group 2, series 717, box 204, folder 1440, RF Archives. Psychological experts were highly sensitive to the work of their German counterparts and, especially early in the war, looked to them as a model of what mobilized expertise could do. Robert Yerkes's important call to arms, for example, suggested that "with suffi-

cient determination and good fortune, we might succeed in compressing the worthwhile progress of a Nazi decade into a year of American effort." Yerkes, "Psychology and Defense," 533.

Christopher Simpson has pointed out that the term "psychological warfare" itself first entered the English vocabulary. in 1941 as a translation of the Nazi concept Weltanschauungskrieg, which literally meant worldview warfare. See Christopher Simpson, "U.S. Mass Communications Research and Counter-insurgency After 1945: An Investigation of the Construction of Scientific 'Reality'" (paper delivered at conference on "Rethinking the Cold War," Madison, Wisconsin, October 1991), 10. [BACK]

30. Hadley Cantril to John Marshall, 13 March 1940, Record Group 1.1, series 200R, box 270, folder 3217, RF Archives. [BACK]

31. "Utilization of Project Data by Government Agencies," 24 December 1941, Record Group 1.1, series 200R, box 270, folder 3221; Hadley Cantril to John Marshall, 4 October 1943, Record Group 1.1, series 200R, box 270, folder 3225; John Marshall memorandum, 16 December 1943, Record Group 1.1, series 200R, box 270, folder 3225, RF Archives. [BACK]

32. "Some Suggestions for Gauging Public Opinion in Foreign Countries: A Confidential Guide Prepared by H. C. for O.W.I. Outpost Men," 13 January 1943, HUG 4118.60, box 3, folder 61, GA Papers. In the postwar period, under Cold War pressure, Cantril's Office of Public Opinion Research became one of the Central Intelligence Agency's two wholly owned polling organizations. See Donald Freed with Dr. Fred Simon Landis, Death in Washington: The Murder of Orlando Letelier (Westport, Conn.: Lawrence Hill, 1980), 34. [BACK]

33. For example, Allen Edwards, a Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues member, was contacted by the War Relocation Authority about how to measure attitudes toward Japanese-Americans and other minority group members, without letting subjects know what was being investigated or why. His response was that "disguised attitude measurement" constituted a real challenge for researchers. See Allen Edwards to Gordon Allport, 27 February 1944, HUG 4118.10, folder: "SPSSI correspondence, 1944-45," GA Papers. [BACK]

34. Jerome S. Bruner in A History of Psychology in Autobiography, 7:95. [BACK]

35. "Confidential Report to the Rockefeller Foundation on Work of the Office of Public Opinion Research," n.d., see esp. "Confidential Reports for Government Agencies and Departments," 9-11, Record Group 1.1, series 200R, box 271, folder 3229, RF Archives. [BACK]

36. Hadley Cantril to John Marshall, 16 April 1943, Record Group 1.1, series 200R, box 270, folder 3225, RF Archives. [BACK]

37. James McKeen Cattell, quoted in J. G. Morawski, "Psychologists for Society and Societies for Psychologists: SPSSI's Place Among Professional Organizations," Journal of Social Issues 42 (Spring 1986):118. [BACK]

38. E. W. Scripps, founding letter of the American Society for the Dissemination of Science, quoted in Morawski, "Psychologists for Society and Societies for Psychologists," 116. [BACK]

39. Lasswell, Psychopathology and Politics, 191-192. [BACK]

40. Gordon Allport in A History of Psychology in Autobiography, 5:14.

"Group Mind" was also the title of an important treatise on crowd psychology. See McDougall, Group Mind. [BACK]

41. Strecker, Beyond the Clinical Frontiers, 79. [BACK]

41. Strecker, Beyond the Clinical Frontiers, 79.

42. Ibid., 180. [BACK]

43. Jerome S. Bruner, a psychologist who worked with Cantril at the Princeton Office of Public Opinion Research, as well as for the Office of War Information, the Division of Program Surveys of the Department of Agriculture, and the Psychological Warfare Division of Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Force, remembers that he "was shocked at how poorly informed they [U.S. citizens] were." Jerome S. Bruner in A History of Psychology in Autobiography, 7:93. [BACK]

44. Bluemel, War, Politics, and Insanity, 107. [BACK]

45. Murphy, ed., Human Nature and Enduring Peace, 372. Chapter 20, from which this quotation is drawn, was authored by Jerome Bruner with Hadley Cantril. [BACK]

46. Richard H. S. Crossman, "Supplementary Essay," in Sykewar, 345. [BACK]

47. Gordon W. Allport, ABC's of Scapegoating, rev. ed. (New York: Anti-Defamation League of B'Nai B'Rith, 1948), 7. [BACK]

48. Such rumors were also a major concern of military morale managers and experts in propaganda agencies. See, for example, Samuel Stouffer to R. Keith Kane, 30 May 1942, HUG (FP) 31.8, box 1, folder: "Kane, R. Keith"; Gordon Allport to Samuel Stouffer, 23 September 1942, box 1, folder: "Harvard University"; "OWI confidential memo on Rumors and Rumor Columns," 19 November 1942, box 1, folder: ''Miscellaneous (2 or 2)," SS Papers. [BACK]

49. Harold P. Lasswell, "The Psychology of Hitlerism," Political Quarterly 4 (July-September 1933):380. [BACK]

50. Wilhelm Reich, The Mass Psychology of Fascism (1933 in German, 1946 in English; reprint, New York: Farrar, Straus, & Giroux, 1970); Fromm, Escape from Freedom. [BACK]

51. See, for example, Dollard et al., Frustration and Aggression, 43-44, 89-90, 151-156. [BACK]

52. Bruno Bettelheim, "Behavior in Extreme Situations," Politics (August 1944):209, emphasis in original, reprinted in shorter form from the Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, October 1943, where it was published as "Individual and Mass Behavior in Extreme Situations." [BACK]

53. Murphy, ed., Human Nature and Enduring Peace, esp. chaps. 7, 11-14, 16. See also Bruno Bettelheim to Gordon Allport, 16 August 1943, HUG 4118.20, box 4, folder 109, GA Papers. The evolution of "reeducation" analysis was heavily indebted to Kurt Lewin's work. See especially Lewin's "Cultural Reconstruction," "The Special Case of German," and "Conduct, Knowledge, and Acceptance of New Values," in Resolving Social Conflicts, 34-68. [BACK]

54. A useful overview of the historical context and importance of The Authoritarian Personality can be found in Franz Samelson, "Authoritarian-ism from Berlin to Berkeley: On Social Psychology and History," Journal of Social Issues 42 (Spring 1986):191-208 (followed by comment by Nevitt Sanford). [BACK]

55. T. W. Adorno et al., The Authoritarian Personality (New York: W. W. Norton, 1950), 16. [BACK]

55. T. W. Adorno et al., The Authoritarian Personality (New York: W. W. Norton, 1950), 16.

56. Ibid., 5, emphasis in original. [BACK]

57. An early study of U.S. anti-Semitism and antiblack prejudice found that 80 percent of its subjects had seriously prejudiced attitudes. See Gordon W. Allport and Bernard M. Kramer, "Some Roots of Prejudice," Journal of Psychology 22 (July 1946):9-39. [BACK]

58. "Survey of Intelligence Materials, Supplement to Survey No. 25," 14 July 1942, HUG (FP) 31.8, box 1, folder: "Negro in America," SS Papers. [BACK]

59. Alfred McClung Lee and Norman Daymond Humphrey, Race Riot (New York: The Dryden Press, 1943), ix, 87. [BACK]

60. Kenneth Clark, "Morale among Negroes," in Civilian Morale, 228-248. [BACK]

61. These are the titles of the final two chapters in Lee and Humphrey, Race Riot. They illustrate not only the impulse to be practically useful but the pervasiveness of the therapeutic and medically oriented language of diagnosis and treatment. [BACK]

62. Gordon Allport to Lillian Wald Kay, 8 March 1945, HUG 4118.10, folder: "SPSSI, miscellaneous, 1944-45," GA Papers. [BACK]

63. Among those who acknowledged debts to Allport's work in this area was Alfred McClung Lee, the coauthor of an important analysis of the 1943 race riot in Detroit. See Alfred McClung Lee to Gordon Allport, 23 February 1942, HUG 4118.10, folder: "La-Lh, 1941-43," GA Papers. [BACK]

64. Gordon W. Allport, "Catharsis and the Reduction of Prejudice," Journal of Social Issues 1 (August 1945):3. [BACK]

65. Lee and Humphrey, Race Riot, 13. [BACK]

65. Lee and Humphrey, Race Riot, 13.

66. Ibid., 103, emphasis in original. [BACK]

65. Lee and Humphrey, Race Riot, 13.

67. Ibid., 128. [BACK]

65. Lee and Humphrey, Race Riot, 13.

68. Ibid., 97. [BACK]

69. Franz Samelson argues that the momentous transition from a psychology that proved objective racial differences to one that proved subjective racial emotions occurred during the interwar period, the result of developments such as restrictive immigration legislation during the 1920s, the slow but steady ethnic diversification of the psychological profession itself, and its leftward tilt during the depression. He considers World War II a dramatic confirmation of the validity of psychology's change of focus, rather than a "cause." See Franz Samelson, "From 'Race Psychology' to 'Studies in Prejudice': Some Observations on the Thematic Reversal in Social Psychology," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 14 (July 1978):265-278. [BACK]

70. Richard Sterba, "Some Psychological Factors in Negro Race Hatred and in Anti-Negro Riots," Psychoanalysis and the Social Sciences 1 (1947):419. [BACK]

71. Menninger, Psychiatry. in a Troubled World, 422. See also Menninger, "The Role of Psychiatry in the World Today," 572. [BACK]

72. Military Mobilization Committee of the American Psychiatric Association, Psychiatric Aspects of Civilian Morale (New York: Family Welfare Association of America, 1942), 11-14. [BACK]

73. Robert Castel, Françoise Castel, and Anne Lovell, The Psychiatric Soci-

ety, trans. Arthur Goldhammer (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), chaps. 3-5; Gerald N. Grob, "World War II and American Psychiatry," Psychohistory Review 19 (Fall 1990):41-69; Grob, From Asylum to Community, chap. 1; Peter Miller and Nikolas Rose, eds., The Power of Psychiatry (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1986), 1-11, 43-84. For an argument that the "community" orientation originated during the Progressive Era, see Sicherman, ''The Quest for Mental Health in America, 1880-1917." [BACK]

74. S. Harvard Kaufman, "The Problem of Human Difference and Prejudice," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 17 (April 1947):352, 356. [BACK]

75. Helen V. McLean, "Psychodynamic Factors in Racial Relations," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 244 (March 1946):162. [BACK]

76. Lecture notes for Brandeis Institute, 11 August 1960, HUG 4118.60, box 7, folder 151: "Prejudice" GA Papers. Richard I. Evans, Gordon Allport: The Man and His Ideas, vol. 6 in Dialogues with Notable Contributors to Personality Theory (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1971), 61-62. See also Kenneth Clark to Gordon Allport, 4 October 1944, HUG 4118.10, folder: "Ca-Cn, 1944-45," GA Papers. [BACK]

77. The two were not, of course, always easy to distinguish in practice. See, for example, the correspondence between Gordon Allport and Cornelius Golightly, an analyst for the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC). Golightly approvingly reported to Allport the FEPC's promotion of an "educational persuasion campaign" to supplement its more formal, legal functions. Cornelius Golightly to Gordon Allport, 28 December 1943, HUG 4118.10, folder: "1938-45, Go-Gz," GA Papers. [BACK]

78. Quoted in Russell Marks, "Legitimating Industrial Capitalism: Philanthropy and Individual Differences," in Philanthropy and Cultural Imperialism: The Foundations at Home and Abroad, ed. Robert F. Arnove (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1980), 105. Yerkes chaired the National Research Council's postwar Committee on Scientific Problems of Human Migration, appointed in 1922. [BACK]

79. For more on the relationship between World War I intelligence testing and eugenics, as well as for a good overview of World War I psychology, see Samelson, "Putting Psychology on the Map," 103-168; and Samelson, "World War I Intelligence Testing and the Development of Psychology," 274-282. For a general historical overview of the role psychological technologies—especially testing—have played in racist and nativist movements, see Robert V. Guthrie, Even the Rat Was White: A Historical View of Psychology (New York: Harper & Row, 1976). [BACK]

80. Yerkes, "Psychology and Defense," 540. [BACK]

81. Edward A. Strecker, "Presidential Address," American Journal of Psychiatry 101 (July 1944):2. [BACK]

82. There were dissidents, of course, even during the 1950s and 1960s, although they were rare. Psychological testing continued to provide much of the ammunition for a new-fashioned school of scientific racism, whose advocates never tired of the example offered by World War I intelligence tests. For a discussion of how heavily advocates of school segregation relied on analysis

of psychological tests in the post- Brown era, as well as for fascinating commentaries by some of these advocates, see I. A. Newby, Challenge to the Court: Social Scientists and the Defense of Segregation, 1954-1966 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1967), chap. 4 and commentaries. [BACK]

83. Edward L. Bernays, "Morale: First Line of Defense," Infantry Journal 48 (May 1941 ):32. [BACK]

84. Samuel Stouffer, "Social Science and the Soldier," HUG (FP) 31.45, box 2, folder: "1943," SS Papers. This was subsequently published in William Fielding Ogburn, ed., American Society in Wartime (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1943), 105-117. [BACK]

85. W. R. Bion, "The 'War of Nerves': Civilian Reaction, Morale and Prophylaxis," in The Neuroses in War, ed. Emanuel Miller (New York: Macmillan, 1943), 180-200. [BACK]

86. Stouffer et al., The American Soldier: Adjustment During Army Life, 27. [BACK]

87. For a general discussion of the army's Research Branch, see Converse, Survey Research in the United States, 165-171, 217-224. [BACK]

88. "Basic Record," HUG (FP) 31.8, box 1, SS Papers. [BACK]

89. "Some Afterthoughts of a Contributor to The American Soldier," quoted in Converse, Survey Research in the United States, 218. [BACK]

90. Samuel A. Stouffer, "Studying the Attitudes of Soldiers," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 92 (12 November 1948):336. [BACK]

91. "Objectives of Demobilization Study," HUG (FP) 31.8, box 1, folder: "Demobilization Process," SS Papers. [BACK]

92. For example, see Russell Sage Foundation, Effective Use of Social Science Research in the Federal Services (New York, 1950), 14-16. Officers of the Rockefeller Foundation also thought that Stouffer's Research Branch in the army and William Langer's Research and Analysis Branch in the Office of Strategic Services were clear examples of how behavioral experts "helped the top command to wiser policies." See Social Sciences Program, Brief Review, 1939-1949, and Future Targets, by Joseph H. Willits, prepared for Trustees' Meeting, 7 December 1949, Record Group 3.1, series 910, box 3, folder 18, item PRO-38, RF Archives. [BACK]

93. Stouffer et al., The American Soldier, 433. [BACK]

93. Stouffer et al., The American Soldier, 433.

94. Ibid., 436 (table 2), 438. [BACK]

93. Stouffer et al., The American Soldier, 433.

95. Ibid., 449, emphasis in original. [BACK]

93. Stouffer et al., The American Soldier, 433.

96. Ibid., 461. [BACK]

97. Greene, "The Role of the Psychiatrist in World War II," 453-455. See also Leland Sitwell and Julius Schreiber, "Neuropsychiatric Program for a Replacement Training Center," War Medicine 3 (January 1943):20-29. [BACK]

98. Stouffer et al., The American Soldier, 465. [BACK]

98. Stouffer et al., The American Soldier, 465.

99. Ibid., chap. 8. [BACK]

100. For an interesting, revisionist interpretation of the Hawthorne experiments, see Richard Gillespie, Manufacturing Knowledge: A History of the Hawthorne Experiments (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991). A shorter version is Richard Gillespie, "The Hawthorne Experiments and the Politics of

Experimentation," in The Rise of Experimentation in American Psychology, ed. Jill G. Morawski (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), 114-137. [BACK]

101. Hadley Cantril to Joseph Willits, 13 May 1947, Record Group 1.1, series 200S, box 388, folder 4596; Hadley Cantril to Eric Hodgin, 27 November 1940, Record Group 1.1, series 200R, box 270, folder 3219; "The Changing Attitude Toward War," grant summary, January 1941, Record Group 1.1, series 200R, box 270, folder 3219, RF Archive. [BACK]

102. The consequences of Lewin's theory are much debated. For the critical perspective that Lewin advanced an antidemocratic style of social engineering, see Peter Emanuel Franks, "A Social History of American Social Psychology Up to the Second World War" (Ph.D. diss., State University of New York, Stony Brook, 1975), pt. 3, chap. 4; and Cina, "Social Science for Whom?" chap. 4. For a celebratory perspective on Lewin as the champion of democracy. and individual integrity, see Edward A. Shils, "Social Inquiry and the Autonomy of the Individual," in The Human Meaning of the Social Sciences, 114-157. For an interpretation somewhere between these two poles, which considers Lewin very critically as a democratic social engineer but without the simplistic, sinister overtones of Franks and Cina, see William Graebner, "The Small Group and Democratic Social Engineering, 1900-1950,'' Journal of Social Issues 42 (Spring 1986): 137-154. For a discussion of Lewin's legacy in the field of prejudice reduction, see Walter A. Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America's Conscience: Social Engineering and Racial Liberalism, 1938-1987 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), 282. [BACK]

103. Stouffer et al., The American Soldier, chap. 10. Almost all of the other surveys conducted by the Research Branch were limited to white soldiers. [BACK]

104. Quoted in Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1944), 1006. [BACK]

105. Malcolm X with the assistance of Alex Haley, The Autobiography. of Malcolm X (New York: Grove Press, Inc., 1964), 104-107. [BACK]

106. Greene, "The Role of the Psychiatrist in World War II," 277-298; Rutherford B. Stevens, "Racial Aspects of Emotional Problems of Negro Soldiers," American Journal of Psychiatry (January 1947):493-498. [BACK]

107. U.S. Department of War, "The Negro Soldier," directed by Frank Capra, 1943. [BACK]

108. "Some Notes on Research Methods," 13 October 1944, emphasis in original, HUG (FP) 31.8, box 2, folder: "Research Problems," SS Papers. [BACK]

109. "Embarrassing Questions," n.d. (c. January 1945), HUG (FP) 31.8, box 2, folder: "Research Problems," SS Papers. [BACK]

110. Stouffer et al., The American Soldier, 37. [BACK]

111. Gordon Allport to Dwight Chapman, 5 November 1943, HUG 4118,10, folder: "1944-45, SPSSI misc," GA Papers. [BACK]

112. Kurt Danziger, Constructing the Subject: Historical Origins of Psychological Research (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), esp. chap. 7; Nikolas Rose, "Calculable Minds and Manageable Individuals," History of the Human Sciences 1 (October 1988):181-200; Samelson, "Putting Psychology on the Map," 103-168; Samelson, "World War I Intelligence Testing and the

Development of Psychology," 274-282; Robert I. Watson, "A Brief History of Clinical Psychology," Psychological Bulletin 50 (September 1953):321-346. [BACK]

113. "A Barometer of International Security," n.d. (c. July 1944), HUG (FP) 31.8, box 1, folder: "Dodd, Stuart C.," SS Papers. [BACK]

114. Leighton, Human Relations in a Changing World, 190. [BACK]

115. Stouffer, "Studying the Attitudes of Soldiers," 340. [BACK]

116. Paul F. Lazarsfeld, "The American Soldier —An Expository Review," Public Opinion Quarterly 13 (Fall 1949):404. [BACK]

117. Gordon Allport to All Members of Congress, 5 April 1945, HUG 4118.50, box 1, folder 10, GA Papers. [BACK]

118. "Human Nature and the Peace: A Statement by Psychologists," HUG 4118.50, box 1, folder 10, GA Papers. The statement is also reprinted in Murphy, ed., Human Nature and Enduring Peace, 455-457. [BACK]

118. "Human Nature and the Peace: A Statement by Psychologists," HUG 4118.50, box 1, folder 10, GA Papers. The statement is also reprinted in Murphy, ed., Human Nature and Enduring Peace, 455-457.

119. Ibid., emphasis in original. [BACK]

120. See the extensive correspondence related to publicity and key contacts among policy-makers in HUG 4118.10, folders: "SPSSI correspondence, 1944-45" and "SPSSI miscellaneous, 1944-45"; HUG 4118.10, box 1, folder 10, GA Papers. [BACK]

121. Robert Yerkes to Secretaries of War and Navy, 18 December 1944 and "Recommendations Concerning Post-War Psychological Services in the Armed Forces," Records of the American Psychological Association, box G-8, folder: "Psychology and the Military, Yerkes Committee: Misc. Reports," Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. [BACK]

122. William Ogburn, a University of Chicago sociologist who directed Hoover's famous Research Committee on Social Trends, is credited with coining the term "cultural lag" to designate the distance between rapid technological advance and slow cultural adjustment. "Cultural lag" was among the most fundamental presumptions animating the history of U.S. social scientists during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries; it indicated that Americans were not responding all that well, personally and socially, to the massive changes occurring around them in the economy, the world of science, and elsewhere. See William F. Ogburn, Social Change, with Respect to Culture and Original Nature (New York: B. W. Buebsch, 1922). [BACK]

123. Murphy, ed., Human Nature and Enduring Peace, 271, emphasis in original. [BACK]

124. "Social Engineering," 1-2, HUG 4118.10, folder: "SPSSI miscellaneous, 1944-45," GA Papers. [BACK]

125. Fromm, Escape from Freedom, xiv. [BACK]

126. Edwin Boring, "Psychology for the Common Man," Summer 1945, 20, HUG 4229.80, folder: "Personal Mss, unpublished," EB Papers. [BACK]

127. Edward A. Purcell, The Crisis of Democratic Theory: Scientific Naturalism & the Problem of Value (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1973). Purcell suggests that World War II resolved "the crisis of democratic theory" that had generated by the model of scientific naturalism and decades of evidence that the scientific truth about human behavior undermined the very basis of liberal democratic institutions. Beginning early in the century, the pessimistic findings of psychological science about mental inequalities and mass irrational-

ity had contributed directly to causing the crisis. World War II managed to resolve it, at least temporarily, by producing a consensus among intellectuals that the normative state of U.S. institutions and policy was equivalent to U.S. democratic ideals. The experiences of psychological experts offer a useful illustration of this equation. For a discussion of this development within political science, see Ricci, The Tragedy of Political Science, chap. 4. [BACK]

128. Quoted in Yans-McLaughlin, "Science, Democracy, and Ethics," 195. [BACK]

128. Quoted in Yans-McLaughlin, "Science, Democracy, and Ethics," 195.

129. Ibid., 209. [BACK]

130. Murphy, ed., Human Nature and Enduring Peace, 442, emphasis in original. [BACK]

131. For a general discussion of the appeal and spread of "scientism" within the social sciences after World War I, see Ross, The Origins of American Social Science, chap. 10. [BACK]