1. For Marxist historiography see Georg Lukács, History and Class Consciousness (Cambridge, Mass., 1971), pp. 46–82; George Rudé, Ideology and Popular Protest (New York, 1980), pp. 7–26; see also the recent restatement of Lukács’s position in Eric Hobsbawm, Workers: Worlds of Labor (New York, 1984), pp. 15–32. The views of modernization theorists can be found in Peter N. Stearns, Revolutionary Syndicalism and French Labor: A Cause without Rebels (New Brunswick, N.J., 1971), and Stearns, Lives of Labor: Work in a Maturing Industrial Society (New York, 1975). For a critique of Lukács’s approach, see Richard J. Evans, ed., The German Working Class (London, 1982), pp. 26–27. For another interesting critique of Lukács, see John Clarke, Chas Critcher, and Richard Johnson, eds., Working-Class Culture: Studies in History and Theory (London, 1979), pp. 209–11.

2. The term is from Annie Kriegel, “Le parti communiste français sous la Troisième République (1920–1939): Evolution de ses effectifs,” Revue française de science politique 21, no. 1 (February 1966): 10.

3. Stearns, Revolutionary Syndicalism.

4. Evans, German Working Class; John Bodnar, Workers’ World: Kinship, Community, and Protest in an Industrial Society, 1900–1940 (Baltimore, 1982).

5. Clarke et al., eds., Working-Class Culture; Gareth Stedman Jones, Languages of Class: Studies in English Working-Class History, 1832–1982 (New York and London, 1983); Patrick Joyce, ed., The Historical Meanings of Work (Cambridge, 1987), pp. 1–31.