1. Academic science in nineteenth-century France is discussed in such works as R. Fox and G. Weisz, eds., The Organization of Science and Technology in France, 1808-1914 (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1980); Harry W. Paul, The Sorcerer's Apprentice: The French Scientist's Image of German Science, 1840-1919 (Gainesville: Univ. of Florida, 1972); idem, From Knowledge to Power: The Rise of the Science Empire in France, 1860-1939 (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985); and Mary Jo Nye, Science in the Provinces (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1986). On Dumas, see especially L. J. Klosterman, "A Research School of Chemistry in the Nineteenth Century: Jean Baptiste Dumas and His Research Students," Annals of Science , 42 (1985), 1-80; and Marcel Chaigneau, Jean-Baptiste Dumas: Sa vie, son oeuvre, 1800-1884 (Paris: Guy Le Prat, 1984).

2. Liebig to Berzelius, 8 May 1831, 2 July 1832, and 17 May 1841, in Carrière, BLB , pp. 11, 34, and 230.

3. ibid. Liebig to Berzelius, 17 April 1841, ibid., p. 223.

2. Liebig to Berzelius, 8 May 1831, 2 July 1832, and 17 May 1841, in Carrière, BLB , pp. 11, 34, and 230.

3. ibid. Liebig to Berzelius, 17 April 1841, ibid., p. 223.

4. For a summary of this dispute, see F. L. Holmes, "Justus Liebig," DSB ,

5. Liebig to Berzelius, 30 May 1833, 14 September 1833, and 31 December 1834, in Carrière, BLB , pp. 62, 71, and 99. "The most maddening thing is," he wrote in the latter letter, "somewhat upset by the oxamide business, in my paper on the constitution of ether I permitted myself some expressions of a personal nature against Dumas, which I should not have done. . . . The devil take these accursed affairs." Even earlier (28 December 1831, ibid., p. 25) Liebig expressed great contrition over a published critique of some work of O. B. Kühn: "I will write no more critiques as long as I live," he vowed.

6. Liebig to [C. F. Kuhlmann], 23 April 1850, Archives of the Académie des Sciences, Paris (Dossier Liebig, Fonds Dumas). My translation from the German.

7. Ibid. (additional letters from Liebig to Dumas); Carrière, BLB , pp. 276-278; Liebig to Wöhler, 1 June 1850, in Hofmann, LWB , 1 , 352-353.

6. Liebig to [C. F. Kuhlmann], 23 April 1850, Archives of the Académie des Sciences, Paris (Dossier Liebig, Fonds Dumas). My translation from the German.

7. Ibid. (additional letters from Liebig to Dumas); Carrière, BLB , pp. 276-278; Liebig to Wöhler, 1 June 1850, in Hofmann, LWB , 1 , 352-353.

8. Liebig to Gerhardt, 15 August 1839 and 1 March 1840, in Edouard Grimaux and Charles Gerhardt, Jr., Charles Gerhardt: Sa vie, son oeuvre, sa correspondance 1816-1856 (Paris: Masson, 1900), pp. 38 and 42-43. This is hereafter cited simply as "Grimaux."

9. Ibid., pp. 46-62.

8. Liebig to Gerhardt, 15 August 1839 and 1 March 1840, in Edouard Grimaux and Charles Gerhardt, Jr., Charles Gerhardt: Sa vie, son oeuvre, sa correspondance 1816-1856 (Paris: Masson, 1900), pp. 38 and 42-43. This is hereafter cited simply as "Grimaux."

9. Ibid., pp. 46-62.

10. Gerhardt, "Recherches sur la classification chimique des substances organiques," C.r. , 15 (1842), 498-500; ibid., Revue scientifique , 10 (1842), 145-218; Grimaux, pp. 63-68, 317-332, and 456-457; Marc Tiffeneau, ed., Correspondance de Charles Gerhardt , 2 vols. (Pads: Masson, 1918-1925) (hereafter cited as "Tiffeneau"), 2 , 19-29.

11. Gerhardt, "Considérations sur les équivalents de quelques corps simples et composés," Ann. chim. , [3] 7 (1843), 129-143, 8 , 238-245.

12. Grimaux, pp. 65-68.

13. On Gerhardt's change of heart toward Laurent, see Grimaux, pp. 83-85, 147, 342-345, 451-452, and 459; and Tiffeneau, 1 , i-ii, and 2 , 11 and 38. The religion of Laurent is not known. Wurtz stated that Gerhardt and Laurent "were of the same race" ("Éloge" [see n. 37], p. 2). He may have been privy to oral information that Laurent was a Jew or of Jewish descent since the word "race" would not have been appropriate to express common nationality . Extant biographical details about Laurent and his parentage are notably sketchy and inconsistent.

14. Laurent to Gerhardt, December 1844, 25 March and 9 April 1845, in Tiffeneau, 1 , 11, 31, and 34.

15. Grimaux, pp. 117-167; Tiffeneau, 1 , 83-88, 115-131, and 137; Liebig, Annalen , 57 (1846), 93-118.

16. Tiffeneau, 1 , 355-356.

17. Ibid., pp. 117-123.

16. Tiffeneau, 1 , 355-356.

17. Ibid., pp. 117-123.

18. Laurent, "Sur les combinaisons organiques azotées," C.r. , 20 (1845), 850-855; "Recherches sur les combinaisons azotées," Ann. chim. , [3] 18 (1846), 266-298 (on pp. 267-268 and 294); Tiffeneau, 1 , 13-14, 25, 31, 61, 76, 81-82, 92, 95, 99, 101, and 105.

19. Tiffeneau, 1 , 19-23, 36-61; Laurent, Méthode de chimie (Pads: Mallet

& Bachelier, 1854, p. xiii. See J. H. Brooke, "Laurent, Gerhardt, and the Philosophy of Chemistry," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences , 6 (1975), 405-429; and N. W. Fisher, "Organic Classification Before Kekulé," Ambix , 20 (1973), 106-131, 209-233 (on pp. 215-217).

20. Laurent, "Observations sur le Précis de chimie organique de M. Gerhardt" (unpublished Ms), in Tiffeneau, 1 , 270-288; Gerhardt to Drion, 15 May 1856, in Grimaux, p. 340.

21. Laurent to Gerhardt, 6 June and 1 July 1846, in Tiffeneau, 1 , 201-202 and 204.

22. Laurent, "Recherches" (see n. 18), p. 296.

23. Laurent to Gerhardt, 2 February 1847, in Tiffeneau, 1 , 222-225.

24. ibid. Laurent to Gerhardt, 4 May 1847, ibid., p. 232.

25. ibid. Laurent to Gerhardt, 30 May 1847, ibid., p. 239.

23. Laurent to Gerhardt, 2 February 1847, in Tiffeneau, 1 , 222-225.

24. ibid. Laurent to Gerhardt, 4 May 1847, ibid., p. 232.

25. ibid. Laurent to Gerhardt, 30 May 1847, ibid., p. 239.

23. Laurent to Gerhardt, 2 February 1847, in Tiffeneau, 1 , 222-225.

24. ibid. Laurent to Gerhardt, 4 May 1847, ibid., p. 232.

25. ibid. Laurent to Gerhardt, 30 May 1847, ibid., p. 239.

26. Seymour Mauskopf, Crystals and Compounds: Molecular Structure and Composition in Nineteenth Century French Science (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1976); Robert Fox, "The Rise and Fall of Laplacian Physics," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences , 4 (1974), 89-136.

27. Grimaux, pp. 168-195.

28. Gerhardt to Jane Gerhardt, 27 March 1848, in Grimaux, p. 174.

29. Ibid., 2 April and 19 April 1848, pp. 175-180.

30. Ibid., 7 April and 13 June 1849, pp. 192-195; Gerhardt to Chancel, 2 February 1851, in Tiffeneau, 2 , 112, describing Laurent's illness.

28. Gerhardt to Jane Gerhardt, 27 March 1848, in Grimaux, p. 174.

29. Ibid., 2 April and 19 April 1848, pp. 175-180.

30. Ibid., 7 April and 13 June 1849, pp. 192-195; Gerhardt to Chancel, 2 February 1851, in Tiffeneau, 2 , 112, describing Laurent's illness.

28. Gerhardt to Jane Gerhardt, 27 March 1848, in Grimaux, p. 174.

29. Ibid., 2 April and 19 April 1848, pp. 175-180.

30. Ibid., 7 April and 13 June 1849, pp. 192-195; Gerhardt to Chancel, 2 February 1851, in Tiffeneau, 2 , 112, describing Laurent's illness.

31. Gerhardt to Liebig, 18 October 1850, in Grimaux, pp. 202-203.

32. Ibid., p. 210; Liebig to Hofmann, 27 October 1850, in Brock, LHB , p. 100.

31. Gerhardt to Liebig, 18 October 1850, in Grimaux, pp. 202-203.

32. Ibid., p. 210; Liebig to Hofmann, 27 October 1850, in Brock, LHB , p. 100.

33. Charles Friedel, "Notice sur la vie et les travaux de Charles-Adolphe Wurtz," Bulletin de la Société Chimique , [2] 43 (1885), i-lxxx (also issued separately, Pads, 1885); A. W. Hofmann, "Erinnerungen an Adolph Wurtz," Berichte , 20 (1887), 815-996, reprinted in Zur Erinnerung an vorangegangene Freunde (Braunschweig: Vieweg, 1888), 3 , 171-431; J. H. Brooke, DSB , 14 , 529-532; J. R. Partington, A History of Chemistry , 4 (London: Macmillan, 1964), 477-488. Friedel misdates Wurtz' stay in Giessen, an error that has been propagated throughout much of the secondary literature.

34. For example, by Hofmann, who should have known better: Erinnerung , p. 408 (see previous note).

35. Grimaux, pp. 13-15; Tiffeneau, 2 , 302.

36. Grimaux, pp. 76-77; Tiffeneau, 2 , 303; Hofmann, Erinnerung , p. 218. Gerhardt, trans. Wurtz, Grundriss der organischen Chemie , 2 vols. (Strasbourg, 1844-1846).

37. Wurtz, "Éloge de Laurent et de Gerhardt," Moniteur scientifique , 4 (1862), 482-513; undated separate, p. 3.

38. Wurtz, "Ueber die Constitution der unterphosphorigen Säure," Annalen , 43 (1842), 318-334; "Sur l'hydrure de cuivre," Ann. chim. , [3] 11 (1844), 250-252.

39. Wurtz, "Recherches sur l'acide sulfophosphorique et le chloroxyde de phosphore," C.r. , 24 (1847), 288-290 (290); extended paper, same title, Ann. chim. , [3] 20 (1847), 472-481 (on pp. 480-481).

40. Wurtz, "Recherches sur les éthers cyaniques et sur le cyanurate de méthylene," C.r. , 27 (1848), 241-243.

41. Wurtz, "Sur une série d'alcalis organiques homologues avec l'ammoniaque," C.r. , 28 (1849), 223-226; Wurtz, "Recherches sur les ammoniaques composées," C.r. , 29 (1849), 169-172.

42. Hofmann, Erinnerung , pp. 217-218.

43. Ibid., pp. 341-342; Wurtz, "Sur une série . . ."; Liebig, "Organische Basen," in Handwörterbuch , 1 , 697-699. This fascicle appeared in 1840, not 1837 as Partington states (see n. 33, p. 437).

42. Hofmann, Erinnerung , pp. 217-218.

43. Ibid., pp. 341-342; Wurtz, "Sur une série . . ."; Liebig, "Organische Basen," in Handwörterbuch , 1 , 697-699. This fascicle appeared in 1840, not 1837 as Partington states (see n. 33, p. 437).

44. Liebig to Hofmann, 23 April 1849, in Brock, LHB , p. 84.

45. ibid. Liebig to Hofmann, 8 December 1849 and 17 January 1850, ibid., pp. 88-89. The transcription "den Feind Herrn Wurtz" should read "den Freund Herrn Wurtz."

44. Liebig to Hofmann, 23 April 1849, in Brock, LHB , p. 84.

45. ibid. Liebig to Hofmann, 8 December 1849 and 17 January 1850, ibid., pp. 88-89. The transcription "den Feind Herrn Wurtz" should read "den Freund Herrn Wurtz."

46. Hofmann, Erinnerung , pp. 226-243; Hofmann to Liebig, undated but securely datable by internal references between 23 February and 12 April 1850, in Brock, LHB , p. 93. Curiously, in his biography Hofmann gives the year as 1851.

47. J. B. Dumas, "Rapport sur un mémoire de M. Wurtz, relatif à des composés nouveaux analogues à l'ammoniaque," C.r. , 29 (1849), 203-206; Grimaux, pp. 197-198 and 379-380; Tiffeneau, 2 , 303-304. Gerhardt Jr. (Grimaux, pp. 197-198) goes so far as to accuse Wurtz of lacking integrity. Gerhardt Jr. was in general an excellent biographer for his father, but he was understandably partisan in his opinions.

48. Gerhardt to Chancel, 1 October 1852, in Tiffeneau, 2 , 130.

49. Wurtz, "Mémoire sur une série d'alcaloides homologues avec l'ammoniaque," Ann. chim. , [3] 30 (1850), 443-507, esp. 444-446 and 495-503. He first used the word "structure" in 1859: "Mémoire sur les glycols ou alcools diatomiques," Ann. chim . [3] 55 , 400-478 (on p. 478).

50. Grimaux, pp. 201-204, 208-254, 259, 264-265, 285-286, and 432-435.

51. Williamson to Gerhardt, 16 August 1851, in Grimaux, p. 220. On Williamson's syntheses and their significance, see Partington (see n. 33), pp. 444-460; J. Harris and W. H. Brock, "From Giessen to Gower Street: Towards a Biography of Alexander Williamson," Annals of Science , 31 (1974), 95-130; and A. J. Rocke, Chemical Atomism in the Nineteenth Century (Columbus: Ohio State Univ. Press, 1984), pp. 215-229. Williamson's work is described in greater detail in chap. 6.

52. Gerhardt and G. Chancel, "Sur la constitution des composés organiques," Comptes rendus des travaux de chimie , 7 (1851), 65-84; Gerhardt, Traité de chimie organique , 4 vols. (Paris, 1853-1856).

53. Gerhardt, "Recherches sur les acides organiques anhydres," C.r. , 34 (1852), 755-758 and 902-905; Ann. chim. , [3] 37 (1853), 285-342.

54. Grimaux, pp. 229-241 and 403-409; Gerhardt to Chancel, 19 June 1852, in Tiffeneau, 2 , 119-121 and 123.

55. Gerhardt to Chancel, 19 June 1852, in Tiffeneau, 2 , 124.

56. Grimaux, p. 241; Chancel to Gerhardt, 22 May 1852, in Tiffeneau, 2 , 121.

57. Grimaux, p. 247. Gerhardt later told Hofmann in glowing terms about

the warmth of this reception: Hofmann, "The Life-Work of Liebig," Erinnerung , 1 , 195-305 (on p. 290).

58. Gerhardt to Chancel, 28 November 1852, in Tiffeneau, 2 , 131. In the event, all mention of Berzelius was omitted from the title page and spine.

59. Tiffeneau, 2 , 141; Liebig to Eduard Vieweg, 12 December 1853, in Margarete and Wolfgang Schneider, eds., Justus von Liebig: Briefe an Vieweg (Braunschweig: Vieweg, 1986), pp. 267-268.

60. Gerhardt to Cahours, 24 February 1856, and Gerhardt to Wurtz, 6 April 1856, in Tiffeneau, 2 , 57 and 312.

61. Grimaux, pp. 416-435; Gerhardt to Williamson, 24 June and 8 November 1853, Harris Collection, Archives, Univ. College London.

62. Gerhardt, Traité , 1 , i-iii.

63. Gerhardt and Chiozza, "Recherches sur les amides," C.r. , 37 (1853), 86-90; Wurtz, "Histoire des doctrines chimiques depuis Lavoisier," in Wurtz, ed., Dictionnaire de chimie pure et appliquée , 1 (Paris: Hachette, 1868), pp. i-xciv (on p. liv).

64. Wurtz, "Sur les dédoublements des éthers cyaniques," C.r. , 37 (1853), pp. 180-183; ibid., "Sur la théorie des amides," pp. 246-250.

65. Wurtz, "Sur les dédoublements," p. 182n.

66. Auguste Scheurer-Kestner, "Charles Gerhardt, Laurent, et la chimie moderne," Revue alsacienne , August 1884; cited in Grimaux, p. 198.

67. Gerhardt, "Note sur la théorie des amides," C.r. , 37 (1853), 281-284.

68. Wurtz, "Nouvelles observations sur la théorie des amides," C.r. , 37 (1853), 357-361.è

69. Wurtz, Leons de chimie professées en 1863 (Paris: Hachette, 1864), p. 93.

70. A. W. Williamson, "Sur la théorie de l'étherification," Ann. chim. , [3] 40 (1854), 98-114. For Williamson's work on etherification, see Harris and Brock, "From Giessen to Gower Street" (see n. 51).

71. Wurtz to Williamson, 18 April 1854, Harris Collection. This is the earliest correspondence between Wurtz and Williamson of which I am aware.

72. Williamson, "On the Constitution of Salts," Chemical Gazette , 9 (1851), 334-339, reprinted in Papers on Etherification and on the Constitution of Salts (Edinburgh: Alembic Club Reprint no. 16, 1902), pp. 42 and 45-46.è

73. Wurtz, "Éloge" (1862), pp. 25-26; Leons (1864), p. 88; Cours de philosophie chimique (Paris, privately publ., 1864), pp. 30-31; Traité élémentaire de chimie médicale , 2 vols. (Paris: Masson, 1864-1865), 2 , 54-55. In another letter to Williamson (27 May 1863, Harris Collection), Wurtz spoke of "la grande influence" that Williamson's work had exercised on the science.è

74. Wurtz, "Théorie des combinaisons glycériques," Ann. chim. , [3] 43 (1855), 492-496, esp. p. 493. In Wurtz' "Histoire générale des glycols," in Leons de chimie professées en 1860 (Paris: Hachette, 1861), pp. 103-105, he was even more explicit regarding his debt to Williamson for the ideas in this paper.

75. Wurtz, "Sur une nouvelle classe de radicaux organiques," Ann. chim. , [3] 44 (1855), 275-313, esp. 300-313.

76. Wurtz, "Sur un nouveau mode de formation de l'éther carbonique,"

C.r. , 32 (1851), 595-596; Wurtz, "Sur l'alcool butylique," C.r. , 35 (1852), 310-312.

77. For details, see Rocke, Chemical Atomism , passim.

78. R. Anschütz, August Kekulé , 2 vols. (Berlin: Verlag Chemie, 1929), 2 , 61-62.

79. Williamson to H. E. Roscoe, 5 December 1853, Roscoe Collection.

80. Wurtz to Liebig, 3 February 1858, Liebigiana IIB.