1. Justus Liebig, "Der Zustand der Chemie in Preussen," Annalen , 34 (1840), 97-136 (on p. 100). [BACK]

2. For background regarding eighteenth-century chemistry, see Karl Hufbauer, The Formation of the German Chemical Community (1720-1795) (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1982); E. Schmauderer, ed., Der Chemiker im Wandel der Zeiten (Weinheim: Verlag Chemie, 1973); and Christoph Meinel, " Artibus Academicis Inserenda : Chemistry's Place in Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Century Universities," History of Universities , 7 (1988), 89-115. [BACK]

3. The following discussion of the German universities in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries is based on a body of recent high-quality English-language research on this subject. See especially R. Steven Turner, "The Growth of Professorial Research in Prussia, 1818-1848—Causes and Context," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences , 3 (1971), 137-182; idem, "University Reformers and Professorial Scholarship in Germany, 1760-1806," in Lawrence Stone, ed., The University in Society , 2 vols. (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1974), 2 , 495-531; Charles McClelland, State, Society, and University in Germany, 1700-1914 (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1980); and Turner, "The Prussian Professoriate and the Research Imperative," in H. N. Jahnke and M. Otte, eds., Epistemological and Social Problems of the Sciences in the Early Nineteenth Century (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1981), pp. 109-121. A recent and excellent German compilation focusing on the professoriate is Klaus Schwabe, ed., Deutsche Hochschullehrer als Elite 1815-1945 (Boppard: Boldt, 1988). [BACK]

4. A. G. Kästner, Briefe aus sechs Jahrzehnten, 1745-1800 (Berlin, 1912),

cited in J. L. Heilbron, ''Experimental Natural Philosophy," in G. Rousseau and R. Porter, eds., The Ferment of Knowledge (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1980), pp. 378-379. [BACK]

5. For example, William Coleman, "Prussian Pedagogy: Purkyne at Breslau, 1823-1839," in Coleman and F. L. Holmes, eds., The Investigative Enterprise: Experimental Physiology in Nineteenth-Century Medicine (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1988), pp. 15-64.

6. Ibid., pp. 45-53; Kathryn Olesko, "On Institutes, Investigations, and Scientific Training," ibid., pp. 295-332 (on pp. 297-299 and 309-310). [BACK]

5. For example, William Coleman, "Prussian Pedagogy: Purkyne at Breslau, 1823-1839," in Coleman and F. L. Holmes, eds., The Investigative Enterprise: Experimental Physiology in Nineteenth-Century Medicine (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1988), pp. 15-64.

6. Ibid., pp. 45-53; Kathryn Olesko, "On Institutes, Investigations, and Scientific Training," ibid., pp. 295-332 (on pp. 297-299 and 309-310). [BACK]

7. McClelland, State, Society, and University , pp. 174-180. [BACK]

8. Arleen Tuchman, "From the Lecture to the Laboratory: The Institutionalization of Scientific Medicine at the University of Heidelberg," in Coleman and Holmes, Investigative Enterprise , pp. 65-99 (on pp. 85-86 and 91-92); Coleman, "Prussian Pedagogy," ibid., p. 40. [BACK]

9. The best general works on Berzelius in major languages are J. E. Jorpes, Jac. Berzelius: His Life and Work (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1966), and Berzelius, tr. O. Larsell, Autobiographical Notes (Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1934). Other works on aspects of Berzelius relevant to the material I treat here are H. G. Söderbaum, "Berzelius und Hwasser, ein Blatt aus der Geschichte der schwedischen Naturforschung," in Julius Ruska, ed., Studien zur Geschichte der Chemie (Berlin: Springer, 1927), pp. 176-186; Evan Melhado, Jacob Berzelius: The Emergence of His Chemical System (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1981); Anders Lundgren, Berzelius och den kemiska atomteorin (Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1979); Vladislav Kruta, "Berzelius' Interest in Physiology," Lychnos , 1973-1974 , 256-262; and T. Frängsmyr and E. Melhado, eds., Enlightenment Science in a Romantic Age: Berzelius and His Science in International Context (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992). [BACK]

10. Söderbaum, "Berzelius und Hwasser"; Kruta, "Physiology"; and Berzelius, Autobiographical Notes , pp. 61-62, 96, 123-128, and 180-181n. [BACK]

11. Melhado, Berzelius ; Lundgren, Berzelius ; Frängsmyr and Melhado, Berzelius ; and A. J. Rocke, Chemical Atomism in the Nineteenth Century: From Dalton to Cannizzaro (Columbus: Ohio State Univ. Press, 1984), pp. 66-79 and 153-190. [BACK]

12. On Wöhler, see Robin Keen, "The Life and Work of Friedrich Wöhler," Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. College London, 1976; idem, "Friedrich Wöhler," DSB , 14 , 474-479; A. W. Hofmann, "Zur Erinnerung an Friedrich Wöhler," in Erinnerung an vorangegangene Freunde , 3 vols. (Braunschweig: Vieweg, 1888), 2 , 1-205; and Johannes Valentin, Friedrich Wöhler (Stuttgart: Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft, 1949). [BACK]

13. Keen, "Life and Work," p. 40. [BACK]

14. Wallach, BWB , 1 , 105, 137, 157, 191-192, 235-236, etc.; see also Wöhler's similar comments to Liebig, in Hofmann, LWB , 2 , 150-151. [BACK]

15. Keen, "Life and Work," p. 115. This was when Wöhler visited Liebig in Giessen for two weeks in November 1831 and again for two weeks in January 1832. [BACK]

16. Wöhler to Berzelius, 19 December 1830, 24 November 1831, and 1 December 1831, in Wallach, BWB , 1 , 325-327, 381, and 387; Liebig to Wöhler, 15 June 1832, in Hofmann, LWB , 1 , 53-54. [BACK]

17. Liebig to Wöhler, 1 February 1836, in Hofmann, LWB , 1 , 84-85; Keen, "Life and Work," pp. 98-100. In addition to Gmelin and Berzelius, support from Hausmann, Gauss, and Weber was expressed from within the Göttingen faculty. [BACK]

18. Wöhler to Berzelius, 27 April 1836, in Wallach, BWB , 1 ,652-654. [BACK]

19. Wöhler to Berzelius, 25 May and 8 September 1836, 30 March and 14 October 1838, ibid., 1 , 656 and 663-664, and 2 , 18 and 66. [BACK]

20. Keen ("Life and Work," p. 87) was unable to locate any information about a Wöhler practicum in Kassel. [BACK]

21. GUA, 4 I, Nr. 47 ("Übersichten der Zuhörerzahl"); Wöhler to Berzelius, 27 May and 22 November 1838, 14 February and 10 August 1839, 22 May 1840, 3 November 1841, and 13 January 1842, in Wallach, BWB , 2 , 30, 70-72, 96, 125-126, 175, 266, and 275-277; Wöhler to Liebig, 30 June 1838, 23 January and 2 March 1839, 21 May and 25 July 1841, in Hofmann, LWB , 1 , 121, 134-135, 140-141, 184, and 253-254. Examples of published work by Wöhler's students includes A. Stürenburg, Annalen , 29 (1839), 291-293; F. Weppen, ibid., pp. 317-319; G. Schnedermann, ibid., 45 (1843), 277-286; K. Voelckel, ibid., 33 (1840), 220-222; ibid., 35 (1840), 306-309; and ibid., 38 (1841), 314-320. The biographical information about Wöhler's students is taken from Wilhelm Ebel, ed., Die Matrikel der Georg-August-Universität zu Göttingen, 1837-1900 (Hildesheim: Lax, 1974), pp. 9, 10, 21, 24, and 28; on Voelckel, see also Wallach, BWB , 2 , 349n. [BACK]

22. An instance of the first category is Wöhler, "Eigenschaften der Tantalsäure," Annalen , 31 (1839), 120-124; that an (unnamed) student actually did the analysis was mentioned in Wöhler's letter to Berzelius of 8 June 1839, in Wallach, BWB , 2 , 115. An instance of the second sort is Wöhler, "Arsenikgehalt des Zinns," Annalen , 29 (1839), 216-217, where Stürenburg's name is mentioned. Some examples of the third category are cited in the previous note. [BACK]

23. Wöhler to Berzelius, 19 May, 25 July, 12 August, 11 September, and 21 October 1841, in Wallach, BWB , 2 , 244, 253-255, 259, and 261-262; Wöhler to Liebig, 21 May 1841, in Hofmann, LWB , 1 , 184. Biographical matters are taken from Ebel, Matrikel , pp. 6, 30, and 37. [BACK]

24. Wöhler to Berzelius, 3 November 1841 and 13 January 1842, in Wallach, BWB , 2 , 266 and 276-277; GUA, 4 I, Nr. 47 ("Übersichten der Zuhörerzahl"). This document begins only in the winter semester of 1842/43 and includes a separate category of numbers of "tägl. Praktikanten" only for the first five semesters. [BACK]

25. The data are from Ebel, Matrikel , pp. 2, 4, 7-10, 15, 17, 20-22, 24, 28, 30, 36-37, 46, 48, 52, 56, and 66. [BACK]

26. Wöhler to Berzelius, 24 April, 23 June, 22 September, and 12 November 1842 and 6 June 1843, in Wallach, BWB , 2 , 293-294, 300-302, 330, 345-349, and 418-419; Valentin, Wöhler , pp. 105-108. [BACK]

28. Liebig, "Eigenhändige biographische Aufzeichnungen," in Hertha von Dechend, ed., Justus von Liebig in Eigenen Zeugnissen , 2d ed. (Weinheim: Verlag Chemie, 1963), pp. 13-27 (on pp. 13-17). These reminiscences are carefully evaluated in Pat Munday, "Social Climbing through Chemistry: Justus Liebig's Rise from the Niederer Mittelstand to the Bildungsbürgertum ," Ambix , 37 (1990), 1-19. [BACK]

29. Ernst Berl, Briefe von Justus Liebig, nach neuen Funden (Giessen: Gesellschaft Liebig-Museum, 1928), pp. 30, 31, and 34-35. [BACK]

30. Liebig, "Aufzeichnungen," pp. 17-22; Berl, Briefe , pp. 43-71. [BACK]

31. Berl, Briefe , pp. 30 and 34; Gustin, "Chemical Profession," pp. 66-102. [BACK]

32. Volhard, Liebig , 1 , 51-63 and 83; Berl, Briefe , pp. 75-81. [BACK]

33. Holmes, "Liebig's Laboratory," pp. 122-132.

34. ibid. This contra Holmes, ibid., pp. 126-128. Here it is important to note that the winter semester of 1826/27 was the first time the chemical course was offered in the new pharmaceutical institute. Liebig said he learned from his initial university practica that intensive lab work was necessary to create a proficient chemist. [BACK]

33. Holmes, "Liebig's Laboratory," pp. 122-132.

34. ibid. This contra Holmes, ibid., pp. 126-128. Here it is important to note that the winter semester of 1826/27 was the first time the chemical course was offered in the new pharmaceutical institute. Liebig said he learned from his initial university practica that intensive lab work was necessary to create a proficient chemist. [BACK]

35. For example, compare Berzelius' judgment of Liebig in his letters to Wöhler of 9 July and 14 October 1830, just before and just after his first meeting with Liebig, in Wallach, BWB , 1 , 304 and 315. [BACK]

36. Volhard, Liebig , 1 , 63-85; Holmes, "Liebig's Laboratory," pp. 146-156; Fruton, "Liebig Research Group." The phrase quoted is from Liebig, "Aufzeichnungen," p. 23. [BACK]

37. Holmes, "Liebig's Laboratory," pp. 155-156 and 159-162.

38. Ibid., p. 162. [BACK]

37. Holmes, "Liebig's Laboratory," pp. 155-156 and 159-162.

38. Ibid., p. 162. [BACK]

39. Volhard, Liebig , 1, 83-84. [BACK]

40. Turner, in "Liebig versus Prussian Chemistry," p. 158, stresses this point. Turner's analysis anticipates and supports the more detailed subsequent studies of Liebig's research lab (by Holmes and by Fruton) and Wöhler's lab (see my discussion above) in their essential aspects. [BACK]

41. H. E. Roscoe, "Bunsen Memorial Lecture," JCS , 77 (1900), 513-554; Theodor Curtius, "Gedächtnissrede," JpC , 169 (1900), 381-407; Heinrich Debus, Erinnerungen an Robert Wilhelm Bunsen (Kassel: Fischer, 1901); and Georg Lockemann, Robert Wilhelm Bunsen (Stuttgart: Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft, 1949). [BACK]

42. Verzeichniss der Vorlesungen (Göttingen: Dieterich, 1835-1836); salary information at Kassel is derived from HSA, 153/4, Nr. 21, p. 20. [BACK]

43. This according to Wöhler's letter to Berzelius of 27 April 1836, in Wallach, BWB , 1 , 654. [BACK]

44. See Berzelius' JB for 1834, 15 (1836), 218; JB for 1835, 16 (1837), 126-129; JB for 1836, 17 (1838), 160; JB for 1837, 18 (1839), 487-502; JB for 1839, 20 (1841), 526-537; JB for 1840, 21 (1842), 495-503 (Bunsen has "immortalized" his name by his research, on p. 496). By this time Bunsen had begun reporting his results directly to Berzelius by letter to facilitate their early inclusion in the Jahresberichte . [BACK]

45. Roscoe, "Bunsen," p. 513. [BACK]

46. L. W. McCay, "My Student Days in Germany," Journal of Chemical Education , 7 (1930), 1081-1099 (on p. 1095), regarding Bunsen's lectures in 1882. [BACK]

47. Indispensable sources for Bunsen's teaching in Kassel and Marburg are (for both periods) Debus, Bunsen , pp. 5-28, and (for Marburg only) Christoph Meinel, Die Chemie an der Universität Marburg seit Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts (Marburg: Elwert, 1978), pp. 20-48. Debus' book provides valuable details regarding Bunsen's strong Berzelian proclivities during the 1840s, as do C. Glück's student notes at Marburg in 1850, in UBM, Mscr. 501 and 502. [BACK]

48. Meinel, Chemie , p. 20.

49. Ibid., pp. 30-31; Debus, Bunsen , pp. 18-20, 158; Bunsen report to Universitäts-Deputation, 2 May 1848, HSA, 16 Rep. VI, Kl. 1, Nr. 25, pp. 63-69. [BACK]

48. Meinel, Chemie , p. 20.

49. Ibid., pp. 30-31; Debus, Bunsen , pp. 18-20, 158; Bunsen report to Universitäts-Deputation, 2 May 1848, HSA, 16 Rep. VI, Kl. 1, Nr. 25, pp. 63-69. [BACK]

50. Debus, pp. 25-27 and 144-150; Max Bodenstein, "Robert Wilhelm Bunsens Stellung zur organischen Chemie," Die Naturwissenschaften , 24 (1936), 193-196. [BACK]

51. Debus, pp. 19-20, 27, 157-158; Curtius, "Gedächtnissrede," p. 403; and H. Goldschmidt, "Erinnerungen an Robert Wilhelm Bunsen," Zeitschrift für angewandte Chemie , 24 (1911), 2137-2140. [BACK]

52. On laboratories and institutes at German universities in the early nineteenth century, see G. Lockemann, "Der chemische Unterricht an den deutschen Universitäten im ersten Viertel des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts," in Ruska, ed., Studien (see n. 9), pp. 148-158; Coleman and Holmes, eds., Investigative Enterprise ; Gustin, "Chemical Profession"; Morrell, ''Chemist Breeders"; McClelland, State, Society and University ; the several works of R. S. Turner cited in this chapter, and especially his "Liebig versus Prussian Chemistry"; and Kathryn Olesko, Physics as a Calling: Discipline and Practice in the Königsberg Seminar for Physics (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 1991). [BACK]

53. Hofmann, "Wöhler," pp. 76-77; Hufbauer, German Chemical Community , pp. 202 and 244-245; Lockemann, "Chemischer Unterricht," pp. 151-152; and Lockemann and R. E. Oesper, "Friedrich Stromeyer and the History of Chemical Laboratory Instruction," Journal of Chemical Education , 30 (1953), 202-204. [BACK]

54. Maurice Crosland, Gay-Lussac: Scientist and Bourgeois (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1978); L. J. Klosterman, "A Research School of Chemistry in the Nineteenth Century: Jean Baptiste Dumas and His Research Students," Annals of Science , 42 (1985), 1-80. Academic science in nineteenth-century France is also dealt with in such works as R. Fox and G. Weisz, eds.,

The Organization of Science and Technology in France, 1808-1914 (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1980); Harry W. Paul, From Knowledge to Power: The Rise of the Science Empire in France, 1860-1939 (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985); and Mary Jo Nye, Science in the Provinces (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1986). [BACK]

55. Revealing testimony on the state of academic chemistry in Britain ca. 1840 and early evidence of agitation for change is provided by D. B. Reid, Remarks on the Present State of Practical Chemistry and Pharmacy (Edinburgh: Neill, 1838); and William Gregory, Letter to the Right Honorable George, Earl of Aberdeen . . . on the State of the Schools of Chemistry in the United Kingdom (London: Taylor & Walton, 1842). Gregory lamented (pp. 18-22 and 28-29) that due to the deficiencies and expense of British universities, and the excellence and inexpensiveness of German academies, most ambitious British chemistry students were going to Göttingen or Giessen for their educations. Nineteenth-century British academic science is covered in D. S. L. Cardwell, The Organisation of Science in England (London: Heinemann, 1957), and by Robert Bud and G. K. Roberts, Science Versus Practice: Chemistry in Victorian Britain (Manchester: Manchester Univ. Press, 1984). [BACK]

56. Frederick Gregory, "Kant, Schelling, and the Administration of Science in the Romantic Era," Osiris , [2] 5 (1989), 17-35, idem, "Kant's Influence on Natural Scientists in the German Romantic Period," in R. Visser et al., eds., New Trends in the History of Science (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1989), pp. 53-66; see also Max Lenz, Geschichte der königlichen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität zu Berlin , 3 vols. (Halle: Waisenhaus, 1910-1918), 1 , 305ff, 570-571, and 2 , 1, 3ff, 224-230, 509-510. [BACK]

57. Christa Jungnickel and Russell McCormmach, The Intellectual Mastery of Nature , vol. 1 (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1986), pp. 23-26; and Kenneth Caneva, "From Galvanism to Electrodynamics: The Transformation of German Physics and Its Social Context," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences , 9 (1978), 63-159. [BACK]

58. Turner, "Liebig versus Prussian Chemistry," pp. 133-138 and 144-147 and the pages cited in Lenz, Geschichte (see n. 56). [BACK]

59. Jungnickel and McCormmach, Intellectual Mastery of Nature , p. 22n. and chap. 4; Olesko, Physics as a Calling ; and David Cahan, "The Institutional Revolution in German Physics, 1865-1914," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences , 15 (1985), 1-65. [BACK]

60. Coleman and Holmes, eds., Investigative Enterprise , especially the articles by Coleman and by Arleen Tuchman. [BACK]

61. Meinel, "Chemistry's Place"; see also Hufbauer, German Chemical Community ; Gustin, "German Chemical Profession"; and Turner, "Liebig." [BACK]

62. In addition to the sources cited in the previous note, see also Erika Hickel, "Der Apothekerberuf," Medizinhistorisches Journal , 13 (1978), 259-276. [BACK]

63. Turner, "Liebig"; Holmes, "Liebig's Laboratory." [BACK]

64. See sources cited in n. 10. [BACK]

65. Liebig to Emil Erlenmeyer, 27 March 1861, in Emil Heuser, ed., Justus von Liebig und Emil Erlenmeyer in ihren Briefen yon 1861-1872 (Mannheim:

Bionomica, 1988), p. 11. I have found the same sentiment expressed in two other letters from Liebig's pen. [BACK]

66. See citations in n. 8. [BACK]

67. Coleman, "Prussian Pedagogy," p. 47. [BACK]

68. Cited in Turner, "Liebig versus Prussian Chemistry," p. 160. [BACK]

69. A number of polytechnic schools were established in pre-Napoleonic Germany; see Helmuth Albrecht, Technische Bildung zwischen Wissenschaft und Praxis (Hildesheim: Ohms, 1987), pp. 25-40. [BACK]

70. Peter Borscheid, Naturwissenschaft, Staat und Industrie in Baden (1848-1914) (Stuttgart: Klett, 1976); Tuchman, "Scientific Medicine at Heidelberg." The practical benefits of chemistry were by no means ignored by state ministries even in the eighteenth century. A number of teaching positions involving what we would call applied chemistry existed (mostly at Gewerbeschulen, mining academies, and polytechnics), as did a significant student clientele interested in industrial careers—for which see Meinel, "Chemistry's Place," and Hufbauer, German Chemical Community . But interest in the ministries dramatically increased after mid-century. [BACK]

71. A. J. Rocke, "Berzelius' Animal Chemistry: From Physiology to Organic Chemistry, 1805-1814," in Frängsmyr and Melhado, Berzelius , pp. 107-131. [BACK]

72. Debus, Bunsen , pp. 144-151. [BACK]

73. Liebig, "Aufzeichnungen," pp. 13-17. [BACK]

74. Debus, Bunsen , p. 145. [BACK]

75. Liebig to Wöhler, 26 June 1848, in Carrière, BLB , p. 265. [BACK]

76. Berzelius to Wöhler, 20 August 1839, in Wallach, BWB , 2 , 134. [BACK]

77. Wöhler to Liebig, 12 November 1863, in Hofmann, LWB , 2 , 149-150. [BACK]

78. Caneva, "German Physics." [BACK]