Chapter 3 An Appearance of Order
1. Ali Mubarak, al-Khitat al-jadida li-Misr al-qahira wa-muduniha wa-biladiha alqadima wa-l-shahira , 9: 49-50.
2. Ali Mubarak, Alam al-Din , pp. 446-7.
3. ibid . pp. 816-18, 962-3, 447.
2. Ali Mubarak, Alam al-Din , pp. 446-7.
3. ibid . pp. 816-18, 962-3, 447.
4. The government's acquisition of this property marked at the same moment Egypt's successful break with the authority of Istanbul. The palace had been the Egyptian residence of the Khedive's half-brother Mustafa Fadil, who had served as finance minister to the Ottoman Sultan in Istanbul and schemed to become Isma`il's successor. The schemes had failed, Mustafa Fadil had fled to Paris, and Isma`il and his direct descendents had been recognised as the future rulers of Egypt. Serif Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1962), pp. 42-8, 276.
5. Mubarak, al-Khitat , 9: 50.
6. See Janet Abu-Lughod, Cairo: 1001 Years of the City Victorious , pp. 98-113; Jacques Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution , pp. 91-2, 94.
7. Abbate-Bey, 'Questions hygiéniques sur la ville du Caire', Bulletin de l'Institut égyptien , 2nd series, 1 (1880): 69.
8. Abu-Lughod, Cairo , p. 113.
9. Edwin De Leon, The Khedive's Egypt (London: Sampson Low & Co., 1877), p. 139.
10. William H. McNeill, Plaques and Peoples (New York: Doubleday, 1976), pp. 266-78.
11. Abbate-Bey, 'Questions hygiéniques', pp. 59, 61, 64.
12. Muhammad Amin Fikri, Jughrafiyyat Misr (Cairo: Matba'at Wadi at-Nil, 1879), p. 53.
13. The only government schools in existence were a military school, set up in 1862 and closed again in 1864, a naval school, and a much-neglected medical school at Qasr al-Aini. One other group of new schools that existed were those estab-
lished by the communities of resident foreigners in Egypt and by European and American missionaries, mostly in the period of Sa'id Pasha (1854-63). James Heyworth-Dunne, An Introduction to the History of Education in Modern Egypt , pp. 323, 340.
14. Amin Sami, Taqwim al-Nil, wa-asma' man tawallaw amr Misr ma'a muddat hukmihim alayha wa mulahazat ta'rikhiyya an ahwal al-khilafa al-amma wa shu'un Misr al-khassa , 3: 16-17; Heyworth-Dunne, Education in Modern Egypt , pp.185, 225, 347.
15. Khedival Order of 13 Jumadi II, 1284 h., in Sami, Taqwim al-Nil , 3: 722.
16. Ahmad Izzat Abd al-Karim, Ta'rikh al-ta`lim fi asr Muhammad Ali , pp. 200-5.
17. Joseph Lancaster, 'The Lancasterian system of education' (1821), in Carl F. Kaestle, ed., Joseph Lancaster and the Monitorial School Movement: A Documentary History , pp. 92-3.
18. Joseph Lancaster, 'Improvements in education as it respects the industrious classes of the community ...' (1805), in Kaestle, ed., Joseph Lancaster , p. 66.
19. R. R. Tronchot, 'L'enseignement mutuel en France', cited Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison , p. 315, n. 5, translation modified. The mutual improvement school was introduced from England into France in 1814. By the 1820s, when Egyptians went there are observed methods of schooling, there were 1200 such schools (Kaestle, ed., Joseph Lancaster , pp. 30-1).
20. Lancaster, 'The Lancasterian system of education', p. 91.
21. ibid . pp. 94, 95-6.
20. Lancaster, 'The Lancasterian system of education', p. 91.
21. ibid . pp. 94, 95-6.
22. Abd al-Karim, al-Ta'lim fi asr Muhammad Ali , pp. 201-3.
23. Kaestle, ed., Joseph Lancaster , pp. 29-34. Lancaster model schools were introduced in the same period in Istanbul. See Niyazi Berkes, The Development of Secularism in Turkey (Montreal: McGill University Press, 1964), pp. 102-6.
24. Abd al-Karim, al-Ta'lim fi asr Muhammad Ali , p. 209.
25. Sixty-six students were sent to study at the school. Besides Isma`il Pasha and Ali Mubarak, they included: Ali Ibrahim, later Director of the Government Primary School under Isma`il, and Minister of Education and Minister of Justice under Tawfiq; Muhammad Sharif, later Minister of Foreign Affairs under Sa`id, President of the Legislative Assembly and Minister of Education under Isma`il, and Prime Minister several times under Tawfiq; Sulayman Najjati, Director of the Military School under Sa`id, an administrator of the military schools under Isma'il, and later a judge of the Mixed Courts; Uthman Sabri, Director of the School for Princes established by Tawfiq, and later a judge of the Mixed Courts and President of the Mixed Court of Appeal; Shahata Isa, Director of the Military Staff College under Isma`il; Muhammad Arif, holder of several government posts and founder of the Society of Knowledge for the Diffusion of Useful Books (Jam'iyyat al-Ma'arif li-Nashr al-Kutub al-Nafi'a), and its press Matba`at al-Ma`arif (see below); Nubar the Armenian, later Minister of Public Works and of Foreign Affairs under Isma`il, and three times Prime Minister under Tawfiq; Sa`id Nasr, holder of numerous administrative posts in education under Isma'il, and appointed judge of the Mixed Courts in 1881 and Honorary President of the Mixed Courts in 1903; Mustafa
Mukhtar, appointed Inspector of Upper Egypt, and later of Lower Egypt; Sadiq Salim Shanan, later Director of the Government Primary School, of the Government Preparatory School, and finally of the School of Engineering—and many others. Heyworth-Dunne, Education in Modern Egypt , pp. 253-9; Umar Tusun, al-Bi`that al-ilmiyya fi ahd Muhammad Ali thumma fi ahday Abbas al-awwal wa-Sa`id , pp. 226-366.
26. Umar Tusun, al-Bi`that al-ilmiyya , pp. 176-9.
27. Heyworth-Dunne, Education in Modern Egypt , p. 246.
28. Heyworth-Dunne, Education in Modern Egypt , p. 246.
29. Cf. Foucault, Discipline and Punish , pp. 135-228.
30. Abd al-Karim, al-Ta`lim fi asr Muhammad Ali , p. 210.
31. Ahmad Izzat Abd al-Karim, Ta'rikh al-ta'lim fi Misr min nihayat hukm Muhammad Ali ila awa'il hukm Tawfiq, 1848-1882 , 1: 177-81, 3: 1-14; Fritz Steppat, 'National education projects in Egypt before the British occupation', in William R. Polk and Richard L. Chambers, eds., Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East: The Nineteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 1968), p. 282; Gilbert Delanoue, Moralistes et politiques musulmans dans l'Egypte du XIXe sièle (1798-1882) , pp. 405-8.
32. Mubarak, Khitat , 9: 48.
33. Nubar Pasha, letter of 8th October 1866, cited in Angelo Sammarco, Histoire de l'Egypte moderne depuis Mohammad Ali jusqu'à l'occupation britannique (1801-1882) vol. 3: Le règne du khédive Ismïl de 1863 à 1875 , p. 137.
34. François de Salignac de la Mothe-Fénelon, Les aventures de Télémaque , cited in Israel Altman, 'The political thought of Rifa`ah Rafi` al-Tahtawi' (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1976), p. 152.
35. Mawaqi` al-aflak fi waqa'i` Tilimak (Beirut: al-Matba`a al-Suriyya, 1867). Tahtawi's other writings of the period were clearly influenced by this work (cf. Delanoue, Moralistes et politiques , 2: 405).
36. F. Robert Hunter Egypt Under the Khedives , p. 53.
37. Nubar Pasha, letter of 8th October 1866, cited Sammarco, Histoire de l'Egypte moderne , 3: 137.
38. Abd al-Rahman al-Rafi`i, Asr Isma'il , 2 vols, 2: 93.
39. Sami, Taqwim al-Nil , 2: 732-3; al-Ta`lim fi Misr fi sanatay 1914-15 , p. 21.
40. Sami, Ta`lim , pp. 21-2; Heyworth-Dunne, Education in Modern Egypt , pp. 362-69.
41. Sami, Ta`lim , p. 40.
42. V. Edouard Dor, L'Instruction publique en Egypt , p. 216.
43. Rifa`a Rafi` al-Tahtawi, al-A`mal al-kamila , 2: 387-8.
44. Rifa`a Rafi` al-Tahtawi, al-Murshid al-amin li-l-banat wa-l-banin , p. 45.
45. Tahtawi, al-A`mal al-kamila , 2: 388-9.
46. Dor, Instruction publique , pp. 245, 359, 368.
47. ibid . p. 235.
48. ibid . pp. 231-2, 268.
46. Dor, Instruction publique , pp. 245, 359, 368.
47. ibid . p. 235.
48. ibid . pp. 231-2, 268.
46. Dor, Instruction publique , pp. 245, 359, 368.
47. ibid . p. 235.
48. ibid . pp. 231-2, 268.
49. Sami, Ta`lim , pp. 23-32, and appendix 4.
50. Dor, Instruction publique , pp. 231-2.
51. Cf. Foucault, Discipline and Punish , pp. 141-9.
52. Dor, Instruction Publique , p. 235.
53. ibid . p. 240.
54. ibid . pp. 166, 170.
52. Dor, Instruction Publique , p. 235.
53. ibid . p. 240.
54. ibid . pp. 166, 170.
52. Dor, Instruction Publique , p. 235.
53. ibid . p. 240.
54. ibid . pp. 166, 170.
55. Ahmad al-Zawahiri, al-Ilm wa-l-ulama wa-nizam al-ta`lim , pp. 90-3.
56. Pierre Arminjon, L'Enseignement, la doctrine et la vie dans les universités musulmanes d'Egypte , p. 85.
57. Dor, Instruction publique , p. 170; Arminjon, Enseignement , p. 81.
58. Dor, Instruction publique , pp. 166-7.
59. ibid . pp. 77, 83.
58. Dor, Instruction publique , pp. 166-7.
59. ibid . pp. 77, 83.
60. Cf. Foucault, Discipline and Punish , p. 147.
61. See Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah , for a discussion of learning in the mosque as the practice of a sina`a (2: 426-35) and for the textual sequence discussed below (2: 436-3: 103). On the teaching mosque as a centre of law, see Richard W. Bulliet, The Patricians of Nishapur: A Study in Medieval Islamic Social History (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), pp. 47-60; and George Makdisi, The Rise of the Colleges: Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1981), where it is shown that general references in the medieval sources to studying and teaching in the mosque (terms such as madrasa, dars, darras, tadris and mudarris ) always referred to fiqh , the law (p. 113).
62. Arminjon, Enseignement , pp. 253-4.
63. See Mustafa Bayram, Ta'rikh al-Azhar (Cairo, n.d., c. 1902), pp. 35-8; and (for a much earlier period) Makdisi, Rise of the Colleges , pp. 13-19.
64. Cf. Michael M. J. Fischer, Iran: From Religious Dispute to Revolution , Harvard Studies in Cultural Anthropology, no. 3 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980), pp. 61-76.
65. See Mubarak, Khitat , 9: 37-8, and Alam al-Din , pp. 242ff.; Jacques Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution , pp. 76-83; Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid Marsot, 'The `ulama' of Cairo in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries', in Nikki R. Keddie, ed., Scholars, Saints, and Sufis: Muslim Religious Institutions in the Middle East since 1500 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972); Daniel Crecelius, 'Nonideological responses of the Egyptian ulama to modernization', in Keddie, ed., Scholars, Saints and Sufis ; Haim Shaked, 'The biographies of `ulama' in Mubarak's Khitat as a source for the history of the `ulama' in the nineteenth century', Asian and African Studies 7 (1971): 59-67. For the life and learning of a Moroccan scholar and the impact of political and social changes in the colonial period, see Dale F. Eickelman, Knowledge and Power in Morocco: The Education of a Twentieth-Century Notable (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985).
66. For an analysis of the idiom of exposure, its relation to notions of honour and modesty, and the way these conceptions invest social practice and relations of power, see Lila Abu-Lughod, Veiled Sentiments: Honor and Poetry in a Bedouin
Society . The work's analysis is drawn from the life of an Egyptian Bedouin community, but its theoretical insights have wide relevance for Egypt and the Mediterranean world.
67. Michael Gilsenan, Recognizing Islam: Religion and Society in the Modern Arab World , p. 16.
68. Ahmad Amin, Qamus al-adat wa-l-taqalid wa-l-ta'abir al-misriyya (Cairo, 1953), p. 308; Heyworth-Dunne, History of Education , pp. 5-6.
69. Cf. Winifred S. Blackman, The Fellahin of Upper Egypt (London: Frank Cass, 1968), pp. 109-17, 256, 259.
70. Tahtawi, al-A'mal al-kamila , 2: 387.
71. ibid . 1: 298.
70. Tahtawi, al-A'mal al-kamila , 2: 387.
71. ibid . 1: 298.
72. Sami, Taqwim al-Nil , 3: 779.
73. Tahtawi, al-A'mal al-kamila , 2: 169. Tahtawi published at the same time a translation of a work by Georg Depping, in which he had met the following sentence: '[For the inhabitant of ancient Greece] les exercices du corps ... faisaient partie chez lui de l'éducation nationale.' The word 'nation' he could handle, but 'education' required a circumlocution: 'Riyadat al-budun ... hiya maslaha qad ya'udu naf'aha ala sa'ir al-watan' (The exercise of the body ... is a good whose benefit may redound generally upon the nation). Rifa'a al-Tahtawi, Qala'id al-mafakhir fi gharib awa'id al-awa'il wa-l-awakhir (Bulaq, 1833), p. 52; a translation of Georg Bernhard Depping, Aperçu historique sur les moeurs et coutumes des nations , p. 107.
74. Tahtawi, al-A'mal al-kamila , 2: 18.
75. ibid . 2: 159, 770.
74. Tahtawi, al-A'mal al-kamila , 2: 18.
75. ibid . 2: 159, 770.
76. In his lexicographical work, published in 1881, Dozy gave the meaning of tarbiya as 'to bring up' or 'to breed', but added the following gloss on the word, citing sources most of which had been written or published in Cairo in the previous fifty years: 'On emploie ce mot dans le sens d' ordre, arrangement, disposition , et dans les phrases où l'on s'attendrait plutôt à trouver le mot tartib '. R. Dozy, Supplément aux dictionnaires arabes (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1881), 1: 506.
77. Tahtawi, al-Murshid al-amin , p. 33.
78. ibid . pp. 28-9.
77. Tahtawi, al-Murshid al-amin , p. 33.
78. ibid . pp. 28-9.
79. Abd al-Aziz Jawish, Ghunyat al-mu'addibin fi turuq al-hadith li-l-tarbiya wa-l-ta'lim , p. 4; Anwar al-Jindi, Abd al-Aziz Jawish (Cairo: al-Dar al-Misriyya li-l-Ta'lif wa-l-Tarjama, 1965), pp. 43-165.
80. Husayn al-Marsafi, Risalat al-kalim al-thaman , pp. 30-1.
81. Similar ideas were central to the thought of Abduh's mentor, al-Afghani, and Abduh's disciple, Rashid Rida. Cf. Rashid Rida, 'al-Jara'id: waza'if ashabiha', al-Manar 1 (1898): 755.
82. Abd al-Rahman al-Rafi'i, Asr Isma'il , 1: 242-4.
83. Ibrahim Abduh, Ta'rikh al-Waqa'i' al-Misriyya, 1828-1942 (Cairo: al-Matba'a al-Amiriyya, 1942), p. 29.
84. Cited Sami, Taqwim al-Nil , 3: 454.
85. Heyworth-Dunne, Education in Modern Egypt , p. 345
86. See Henry Habib Ayrout, The Egyptian Peasant , rev. ed., trans. John Alden Williams (Boston: Beacon Press, 1963), pp. 114-15.
87. Bourdieu discusses at length how this kind of polarisation renders every action within the house and every movement in relation to it a re-enactment, and thereby an implicit inculcation, of the practical principles in terms of which everyday life is improvised. Outline of a Theory of Practice , pp. 87-95.
88. Ayrout, The Egyptian Peasant , p. 130.