1. Clave, Cours de chymie, 8. For debate on how medicine affected botany, see: Arber, Herbals, 6-7, and "Robert Sharrock," 5; Webster, "Recognition of Plant Sensitivity," 9, 22; Roger, Sciences de la vie, pt. 1, and pt. 2, chap. 1; Debus, "Paracelsian Doctrine in English Medicine," 21-22.

2. Histoire, 2: 66.

3. Dorveaux, "Grands pharmaciens. 1. Bourdelin," 292; Brygoo, "Les médecins de Montpellier," 12; Éloy, Dictionnaire de la médecine, 1: 433, 588; 2: 104, 318; 3: 159, 507-8; DBF, 15: 907.

4. çloy, Dictionnaire de la médecine, 1: 432, 594; 2: 64, 554; 3: 280; Brygoo, "Les médecins de Montpellier," 14; Dorveaux, "Apothicaires membres. 3. Boulduc"; IB; there is no entry for Langlade in Hazon, Notice, Éloy, Dictionnaire de la médecine, or the standard biographical encyclopedias.

5. Huygens, Oeuvres, 7: 11, 17; compare 8: 541 (22 Sept. 1684).

6. Hazon, Notice, 151; Éloy, Dictionnaire de la médecine, 2: 121-24.

7. Hazon, Notice, 176, 191; Éloy, Dictionnaire de la médecine, 2: 396; 4: 365-66, 415-19; Brygoo, "Les médecins de Montpellier," 16-17; Tournefort, 17, 20. Tournefort corresponded with Martin Lister about surgery he had performed: Bodleian MS. Lister 2: 155-56, no date.

8. See for example: Histoire, 1: 27-35, 36-39, 123-24, 198-99, 250-52, 370-73, 2: 51-52, 92.

9. See for example: Charas, Pharmacopée royale, "Nouvelle preparation du quinquina," and "Relation de l'accident arrivé en maniant les vipéres." Dodart, "Lettre ... touchant quelques grains," and his posthumous Medicina statica Gallica; AdS, Reg., 10: 72r, 84v (1681); Fontenelle, Éloges, 101; Le Clerc, History of Physick, a. Tournefort, Materia medica, and Histoire des plantes. Duclos, Observations; Lémery, Traité universel; Jean Marchant, Méthode nouvelle pour guerir la fievre maligne; Tauvry, Pratique des maladies croniques, Nouvelle pratique des maladies aigues, and Traité des medicamens et la maniere de s'en servir.

10. Hoppen, "The Nature of the Early Royal Society," 255, 270n. 89.

11. Roger, Sciences de la vie, 169n. 35.

12. AdS, Reg., 11: 157v (30 Jan. 1686). Louvois also hoped that academicians would persuade physicians to abandon any "recherche inutile du remede universal qui est comme la pierre philosophale," a subject that had interested Duclos and Bourdelin: BN MS. n. a. fr. 5133: 45-58.

13. Brown, Scientific Organizations, 18-30, 195, 263; Roger, Sciences de la vie, 173, 175; Howard, "Medical Politics"; Brygoo, "Les médecins de Montpellier"; Whitmore, The Order of Minims, 228; Handford, "Chemistry at the Jardin du roi," 19-20, 47-50; Partington, History of Chemistry, 2: 172, 173, 269, 289; Multhauf, The Origins of Chemistry, 264-67.

14. AdS, Reg., 1: 30-31, 36-38 (Jan. 1667); 8: 117r-20r, 141r-v (2 June, 17 Nov. 1677); 10: 96v (22 Apr. 1682); 11: 24r, 64r-66r (17 Nov. 1683, 27 Apr. 1684); BN MS. n. a. fr. 5133: 29-31 (1667); Histoire, 1: 161-62.

15. Dodart, Mémoires des plantes, 140-42.

16. Ibid., 143. Other academicians also discussed poisons and their antidotes: AdS, Reg., 11: 163r-64v (2 Mar. 1686); 14: 24v (1 Sept. 1694); Histoire, 2: 182-83 (1693).

17. BN MS. n. a. fr. 5133: 29-30; Bertrand, "Les Académies d'autrefois" (1866): 345, and L'Académie et les académiciens, 14-15. See also Metzger, Les doctrines chimiques en France, 354-55; Salomon-Bayet, "Opiologia," 126-28. Bourdelin, however, obtained and tested the urine of the "petits garçons" and "petites filles de St Esprit": AdS, Cartons 1666-1793, 2, 6: 185v-81v [sic] (1676).

18. AdS, Reg., 14: 14v (12 May 1694); 15: 43r-46r, 194r-97r (5 Sept. 1696); BMHN MS. 450: 52r; Dodart, Mémoires des plantes, 142-43, 151, 232-36; Mémoires, 10: 244-47; Salomon-Bayet, "Opiologia," 142-50.

19. AdS, Reg., 10: 35r (3 July 1680); cf. 97r-v (6 May 1682); Oldenburg, Correspondence, 1: 225, 227, 229; also cited by A. R. Hall, "Henry Oldenburg et les relations scientifiques an XVIIe siècle," 294. Oldenburg said Duclos practiced Paracelsian spagyric medicine; Whitmore, The Order of Minims, 227, points out that in English usage "spagyrical" meant "alchemical" but in France it referred to the use of antimony. Borelly wanted to test antimony and mercury: AdS, Reg., 11: 164r. See also Poynter, ed., Chemistry, 44.

20. In addition to previous references, see: AdS, Reg., 8: 134r, 135v, 174r-v, 224v (30 June, 28 July 1677, 18 May 1678, 23 Aug. 1679); 7: 244v (13 May 1679); 10: 149v (July 1682-June 1683); 11: 24r, 163r-64v (17 Nov. 1683, 2 Mar. 1686). Histoire, 1: 373; 2: 49-50, 68. Compare 'Espinasse, Robert Hooke, 151; Hoffmann, Fundamenta medicinae, 115-42.

For familiar remedies: AdS, Reg., 10: 4r, 26r, 69r, 86r, 113r (13 Dec. 1679, 19 June 1680, 4 June, 10 Dec. 1681, 26 Aug. 1682); 12: 1v-2r, 116v, 143v-44r (8 May 1686, 22 Dec. 1688, 3 Sept. 1689); 13: 140v (12 Aug. 1693); 14: 3v-4r, 16r (2 Dec.1693, 2 June 1694); 15: 107v (27 June 1696); 17: 38r-39v (27 Nov. 1697); Histoire, 1: 329 (1681), 2: 182, 183 (1693).

For less common remedies: AdS, Reg., 8: 174r (18 May 1678); 11: 126v, 129v-30r (2, 23, 26 May 1685); 12: 88v, 116v, 131r-v (2 June, 22 Dec. 1688, 13, 20 Apr. 1689); 13: 3r, 14r, 39v, 63v, 130v (15 Feb., 15 June, 15 Nov. 1690, 30 May 1691, 1 Apr. 1693); 14: 3r, 16r, 22v, 83v, 144r-v, 196r (25 Nov. 1693, 2 June, 4 Aug. 1694, 6 Apr., 6 July, 19 Nov. 1695); Histoire, 1: 427.

On quinine, see Mémoires, 10: 92-98 (31 May 1692); on opium, see n. 18, above, and AdS, Reg., 8: 192v (14 Dec. 1678); 14: 22v (4 Aug. 1694). On Dodart's interest in nutrition, see chap. 7.

21. Brockliss, French Higher Education, chap. 8, esp. sect. iv. Duclos, however, deplored the empirical approach: BMHN MS. 1278. The Academy's views were often controversial: Roger, Sciences de la vie, 179-81.

22. For the last, see the review in JdS (1671): 616, of Du Hamel's De corporum affectionibus.

23. Roger, Sciences de la vie, 444.

24. AdS, Reg., 4: 51v-52r (9 June 1668).

25. Boas, "Acid and Alkali," 14-18; Multhauf, "J. B. van Helmont's Reformation of the Galenic Doctrine of Digestion"; Mendelsohn, Heat and Life, 18-19.

26. Multhauf, The Origins of Chemistry, 218, 222-23; Webster, The Great Instauration, 274; Tournefort, Histoire des plantes, aiiij^v.

27. Dodart, "Lettre ... touchant quelques grains," in Mémoires, 10: 561-66; parts of this section on ergotism have been published in Stroup, "Some Assumptions." I am grateful to Martinus Nijhoff Publishers for permission to reprint those passages.

28. Greulach and Adams, Plants, 50; Alexopoulos and Mims, Introductory Mycology.

29. Barger, Ergot and Ergotism, 10-13, 40-60, 65-70, 83; Bové, Story of Ergot, 137-44; Brothwell and Brothwell, Food in Antiquity, 145-55; von Hilden, Gründlicher Bericht vom heissen und kalten Brand; Thal, Sylva Hercynia; Bauhin, Pinax, 23, "Secale luxurans"; his Theatri botanici, 1, 4, xvii: 433-34, includes what is said by Barger (p. 10) to be the earliest illustration of ergot.

30. Éloy, Dictionnaire de la médecine, 1: 304-5; NBU, 14: 850; DBF, "Dubé." Dodart read the letters of Dubé and Chatton about spurred grain to the assembly on Wednesday, 31 July 1675: AdS, Reg., 8: 60r-v. See also, Mémoires, 10: 562, 564, 565; Chatton, "Extrait"; Stroup, "Some Assumptions.

31. Mémoires, 10: 561-62, 564-65.

32. Above quotations from Mémoires, 10: 563. For an explanation of ardent and volatile spirits, see Eklund, Incompleat Chymist, 22, 40, 44.

33. Mémoires, 10: 565; in fact, the hallucinatory form of ergotism is prevalent in some regions, the gangrenous form in others.

34. Ibid., 562-63, 564.

35. Ibid., 563-65. During 1674 Bourdelin distilled rye, barley, and wheat, but his notebooks at the Academy for the period from 1674 through 1677 do not mention spurred rye: AdS, Cartons 1666-1793, 1, 2: 1-18, 33-52, 162-66, 204-8; 1, 3: 155-65, 171-76. In 1679, he distilled seeds and flour: ibid., 2, 7: 133r-35r, 163r-v.

36. Mariotte and Dodart studied barley, wheat, corn, and spurred rye: AdS, Reg., 8: 135v, 151v (4 Aug. 1677, 23 Mar. 1678); Historia, 170.

37. Mémoires, 10: 561-63; Bové, Story of Ergot, 23.

38. Mémoires, 10: 562, 563.

39. Ibid., 564-65. The experiment had not been performed when Dodart wrote.

40. Ibid., 564.

41. Hunault, Discours physique sur les fievres, 1, 54, 57; Dubé, Medecin des pauvres, 366-67, 374, and Chirurgien des pauvres, 69.

42. Pierre Goubert, "The French Peasantry," 68-69.

43. Bonnin, "À propos de la productivité agricole"; Hémardinquer, "Faut-il 'démythifier' le porc familial?"; Goubert, French Peasantry; Lebrun, Les hommes et la mort.

44. Goubert, Louis XIV and Twenty Million Frenchmen, 179; Barger, Ergot and Ergotism, chap. 2.

45. Tilly, "La révolte frumentaire," 742n. 32; Jean-Pierre Goubert, "Le phénomène épidémique," 1573-74; Barger, Ergot and Ergotism, 24-25.

46. Tilly, "La révolte frumentaire," 735, 749.

47. Mémoires, 10: 565-66. For the limited success of laws against the sale of ergot mixed with grain, see Barger, Ergot and Ergotism, 71, 75, 77; Jean-Pierre Goubert, "Le phénomène épidémique," 1574; Tilly, "La révolte frumentaire," 736.

48. The Academy continued this work in the eighteenth century: Fagon, "Sur le bled cornu"; Barger, Ergot and Ergotism, 31; Tiller, Dissertation, 42-45, 48; Diderot et al., Encyclopédie, 5: 906-7, "Ergot"; Wolff, Vera causa, and Lang, Descriptio morborum ex usu clavorum secalinorum, both discussed in Acta eruditorum (1718): 178-81, 309-16; Barger, Ergot and Ergotism, 62, 69-72.

49. Antoine, Methode pour conserver la santé; Belloste, The Hospital Surgeon; Bonet, Bibliotheque de medecine et de chirurgie and A Guide to the Practical Physician; Dubé, Medecin des pauvres and Chirurgien des pauvres; Fournier, L'oeconomie chirurgicale and L'antiloimotechnie, which includes his Traicté de la gangrene; Hecquet, La medecine et la chirurgie des pauvres and Traité de la peste; Hunault, Discours physique sur les fievres; Le Clerc, The Compleat Surgeon and History of Physick; Moreau, De la veritable connoissance des fievres and Traité chymique de la veritable connoissance des fievres; Raynaud, Traité des fievres malignes et pourprées; Tardy, Cours de medecine; Wiseman, Severall Chirurgicall Treatises. See also Barger, Ergot and Ergotism, 70-77; Jean-Pierre Goubert, "Le phénomène épidémique," 1574; and Delamare, Traité de la police.

50. Dubé, Poor Man's Physician, 332-34; Antoine, Methode pour conserver la santé, 1, pt. 4, chaps. 3-6; Le Clerc, The Compleat Surgeon, 150-51. Peter, "Disease and the Sick at the End of the Eighteenth Century."

51. Dodart presented his study of purported remedies for the poor at several meetings: AdS, Reg., 10: 84v, 96v, 97r, 106r, 107r, 109r, 110v, 111v (5 Dec. 1681, 22, 29 Apr., 15, 22, 23, 29 July, 5 Aug. 1682). He was analyzing the medicaments discussed in such treatises as Sagot's controversial Remedes des pauvres; see also Denis, Recueil ... Quinzieme conference (1674).

52. Fontenelle, Éloges, 102, or Histoire ... 1707, 190-91.

53. Davis, Society and Culture; Darnton, The Great Cat Massacre, 9-72; Le Roy Ladurie, Carnival in Romans; Mousnier, Peasant Uprisings; Hanawalt, Crime and Conflict.