A Company of Scientists "d0e46310"

INDEX

A

Academicians: books by for sale in Paris, 191 -192

as collectors, 195

in conflict with Academy, 199 , 204 -209

compared with assistants, 211

as Fellows of Royal Society, 202

housing of, 20 , 32 , 39 , 41 , 43 , 52 , 55 , 294 n.41

as inventors, 156

naturalization of, 23

origins and careers of, 15 -25, 26 , 32 , 36 , 171 -174, 186

and religion, 19 , 23 , 178 , 190 , 200 , 201

as teachers of mathematics and science, 16 , 38 , 114 , 194 , 197 .

See also names of individuals ; Académie royale des sciences; Community; Pensions

Académie française, 22 , 23 , 25 , 74 , 183 , 191

Académie physique (Caen), 205

Académie royale d'architecture, 21 , 197

Académie royale des inscriptions, 23 , 24

Académie royale des sciences.

See also Academicians; Bibliothèque du roi; Colbert; Jardin royal; Louvois; Louvre; Observatoire; Patronage; Pensions paid to academicians; Pontchartrain

—accomplishments of, 3 , 10 , 221 -226, and passim

—assistants to, 14 , 34 , 40 , 41 , 48 , 55 , 209 , 210 -211, 295 n.2

—audience for work of, 5 , 26 , 44 , 73 -74, 101

—books dedicated to, 210

—dynasties in, 17

(see also Bourdelin; Cassini; Couplet; La Hire; Marchant)

—exchange, scholarly, and, 101 , 103 -104, 169 , 170 , 180 -198, 199 -217

effect of, 212 -213, 215 -217

restrictions on, 199 , 204 -217

unequal character of, 210 -212

—expectations about, 4 , 8 , 9 , 14 , 27 , 28 -33, 60 -61, 222 , 225

—failures of: in natural history of plants, 65 , 69 , 88 , 102 , 103 -116

response to, 65 , 89 -90, 91 -93, 94 -95, 96 , 97 -98, 98 -100, 100 -101, 137 -144, 225

(see also Analogical reasoning; Analogies)

—finances of, 24 , 34 -45, 46 -61, 88 , 111 , 208 , 224

jetons , 291 n.3

for mathematical sciences, 47 -48, 51 , 52 , 53 -54, 56 , 57 , 58 , 60

for natural philosophy, 47 , 48 , 51 , 52 , 54 -55, 56 , 57 , 58 -59, 60 , 80 , 104 , 114

for Observatory, 43 , 47 , 52 , 57 , 60

overview, 47 , 51 -53, 56 -58, 60

for pensions, 34 , 35 -38, 46 , 47 , 52 , 57 , 60

for practical projects, 47 , 48 -50, 51 , 52 , 55 -56, 57 , 59 , 60

for repairs to equipment and physical plant, 51 , 52

for shared expenses, 47 , 52 , 57 , 60

for small expenses, 47 , 48 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 57

—foundation of, prototypes for, 28 -29, 30 -33

—functions and goals of, 10 , 27 , 37 , 50 , 79 , 110 , 169 , 221

apologist for use of vernacular in science, 223

arm of

― 372 ―

government, 178

clearing-house of information, 212 , 217

disseminator of knowledge, 197 -198, 204 , 210 -211, 217 , 222 -223

educator, 44 , 197 -198, 204 , 211 , 217 , 223

instrument of royal propaganda, 8 , 31 , 223

"moral person," 222

referee of ideas, inventions, and prospective publications, 59 , 60 , 115 -116 169 , 175 , 205 , 210 , 216 , 222 , 290 -291 n.27

reform science, medicine, and technology, 9 , 29 -30, 60 -61, 98 , 99 , 108 , 109 , 110 , 117 , 119 , 154 , 169 -179, 209 , 217 , 221 -222

research institution, 45

technical consultant to government, 50 , 51 , 169 , 178 , 223

—hierarchy of, 13 -14, 16 , 23 -24, 83 , 182 , 211 , 224

associate memberships, 14

celebrities and regulars, 37

corresponding memberships, 14

honorary memberships, 14

ministerial spokesmen, 23 -24

and pensions, 35 -36

president, 14 , 24

secretary, 13 , 14 , 334 n.81

students, 14 , 35 , 36 , 182 , 211

treasurer, 14

usher, 211

—laboratory of, 18 -19, 20 , 34 , 39 , 48 , 58 , 71 , 82 , 101 , 109 , 210 , 304 n.36

crisis in, 54 -55

portrait of, 40

—Louis XIV, and: attitude toward science and Academy, 22 , 25 -26, 31 , 32 , 48 , 49 , 223

flattered by Academy, 110 , 113

founder and patron of Academy, 3 , 13

visits Academy and Observatory, 5 -8, 26 , 32 , 80 , 107 , 208 , 294 n.40

—medical interests of, 19 , 98 , 99 , 108 , 109 , 110 , 169 -179, 204 , 212

—meetings of, 14 -15, 82 , 96 , 110 , 132 , 209 , 285 -286 n.5, 333 -334 n.80

attendance at, 103 , 223 , 291 nn.3, 12

function of changes, 59 -60

minutes of, 15 , 83 , 107 , 208

—membership in: aspirants to, 210 , 217 , 224

compared with being assistant to, 211

composition of, 15 -25, 48 , 53 , 54 , 58

criteria for, 15 , 17 , 32 , 224

effect of lifetime appointment, 224

kinds of, 13 -14, 22 -23, 24 , 36 , 291 n.12

prestige and privileges of, 200 , 211

—ministerial protectors, 23 -24, 24 -25, 26 , 28 , 216 , 223 , 224 , 225 , 226

control Academy's research, 46 -61, 103 -116

influence Academy, 8 -9, 23 -25, 32 , 37 -38, 39 , 107 -111, 113 , 174 , 208 , 222 , 224 , 225

live near Academy, 38 -39

policies of compared, 13 , 36 -37, 46 -47, 51 , 107

—morale of, 15 , 19 -20, 22 , 24 , 25 , 34 , 37 -38, 52 -53, 55 , 56 , 59 , 83 , 107 , 111 , 174 , 204

—names of, 28 , 30

—patronage of, 5 -8, 8 -9, 30 -31, 44 , 170

advantages of, 65 , 71 , 75 , 80 , 223

effects of, 9 , 10 , 25 , 34 , 43 , 45 , 61 , 69 , 107 -111, 115 -116, 169 , 207 -208, 221 -226

control of Academy through, 23 , 32 , 37 -38

extent of, 34 -64

motives of, 3 , 29 -30, 30 -31, 109 , 110

—physical quarters of, 7 , 38 -45, 59

—portraits of, 5 -8, 39 -42

—publication program of, 21 -22, 33 , 34 , 100 -101, 103 -116, 205 -209, 212 -213, 216 , 217 , 222 -223

Colbert, Louvois, and Pontchartrain compared, 25 , 46 , 49 , 52 , 54 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59

restrictions on, 56 , 87 , 97 ,104 , 107 , 205 , 206 , 208 , 223

—regulations of, 9 , 13 , 28 , 58 , 170 , 199 , 200 , 204 -209, 211 -212, 216 , 223

—relations of with others, 18 , 44 , 170 , 174 -175, 178 , 179 , 180 -198, 199 -217

Bibliothèque du roi, 38 -43

Compagnie des arts et métiers, 59 , 197

Dutch scientists, 203

Jardin royal, 38 -43, 107 , 114

Malpighi, 201

medical faculties, 173

other royal institutions, 217

other scientific societies, 165 , 172 , 196 -197, 199 -200, 202 , 204 , 205 , 206 , 223

public, 45 , 79 , 101 , 103 -104, 179 , 212 -213, 222

scientific community, 9 -10, 101 , 169 , 170 , 178 , 186 , 198 , 205 , 210 , 216 -217, 222

—religion and, 17 , 19 , 21 , 23 , 24 , 43 , 44 , 55 , 170 , 172 , 178 , 190 , 200 , 201

—reputation of protected, 48 , 87 , 97 , 101 , 170 , 205 -207, 208 , 216

—research of, 5 -7, 60 , 65 , 222 , 223 , 224 , 225

in botany, 65 , 67 -88, 89 -102, 103 -116, 203 -204

in chemistry, 89 -102, 108 -109

control of, 111 , 223

how planned, 59 -60, 60 -61, 83 , 110 -111

individual and collective, 29 , 59 , 60 -61, 80 , 82 , 87 -88, 111 , 115 , 157 , 207 , 217 , 224 , 225

long-term, 59 , 83

—rivalry: within Academy, 9 , 69 , 83 , 87 , 102 , 113 -115, 174 , 206 , 225

between

― 373 ―

Academy and others, 202 , 204 , 205 -207, 307 -308 n.29

—size of, 15 , 37 , 52 , 57

as "working Academy," 13 -14, 15 , 37

—traits of, 4 -5, 9 -10, 13 , 35 , 37 , 45 , 50 , 59 , 60 -61, 65 , 67 , 69 , 71 , 74 , 115 -116, 154 , 165 , 169 -170, 171 -174, 180 , 199 , 204 -209, 209 -217, 221 -226

agnosticism of, 48 , 211 , 222

Baconianism of, 147 , 165

as collector, 38 , 44 , 49 , 55 , 56 , 80 , 156 , 195 , 210

as company, 28 -29, 31 -33

corporate esprit of, 217

experimentalism of, 100 , 222

medical empiricism of, 99 , 173

mistrust of Platonism and Paracelsianism, 87

Parisian, 186

pragmatism of, 99 , 102

proprietor of equipment, 44 -45

as society in microcosm, 38 , 45

—utility of, 3 , 25 -26, 32 , 46 , 47 , 48 -50, 51 , 52 , 55 -56, 57 , 59 , 61 , 101 , 108 , 109 , 110 , 222 , 223

—war, political hostilities and, 50 , 51 , 53 , 54 , 56 , 60 , 80 , 103 , 104 , 107 , 108 , 201

Academy of Inscriptions. See Académie royale des inscriptions

Academy of Sciences. See Académie royale des sciences

Accademia del Cimento (Florence), 22 , 29 , 34 , 156 , 206 , 208 , 291 n.12, 317 n.3, 331 n.56, 335 n.101

Acids and alkalis: Mariotte translates Boyle's study of, 214

theories of, 173

Agriculture, interest of Academy in, 49 , 169 , 194

Air: nature and functions of, 154 , 160 , 161 , 165 , 336 n.102

role of in vegetable physiology, 141 , 150 , 160 -165, 166

Airlessness, effects of on plants, 203 -204

Air pressure, 18 , 44 , 138 , 139 , 140 , 141 , 142 , 312 -313 n.34

Air pump, 118 , 141 , 155 , 156 , 193 , 203 , 211 , 212 , 320 n.27

illustration of Huygens's, 6

use of in Academy, 154 , 159 -166

Alchemy. See Duclos

Aldrovandi, Ulisse, 66

Alkahest, Duclos's recipe for, 97

Alpin, Prosper, 70

Amielle, seller of cylindrical mirrors, 194

Amsterdam, publishing in, 97 , 206

Analogical reasoning, 117 -130, 131 -144

biological and technological models in, 119 , 128 , 129 , 144

in biology, 119 , 120 , 122 -123

in Harveian model, 128 -130

merits and disadvantages of, 119 , 120 , 121 -124, 144

problem of crucial dissimilarities, 123 , 132 -133, 136 -139, 140 -142, 144

problem of material similarities, 121 , 123 , 132 , 134 -137

problem of pretheoretic similarities, 121 , 123 , 132 , 133 -134

Analogies: in botany, 51 , 61 , 146 , 147 , 164 , 166 , 225

in chemistry, 90 -91

failure of, 124

types and functions of, 120 , 121 , 123 , 131 , 133 , 134 , 135 , 137 , 142 , 143 , 144

in zoology, 148

Anatomical research of Academy. See under Natural philosophical research of Academy

Anatomy. See also Histoire des animaux; Sap

—animal and human, 21 , 48 , 54 , 66 , 142 , 225 , 311 n.9

influence of on botany, 65 , 126 -127, 133 -134

—vegetable, 67 , 118 , 136 -137, 140 , 141 , 142 , 146 -149, 157 -159, 215

putative air vessels and valves in, 136 -137, 142 , 144 , 214 -215

Ancients, 71 , 120 , 122 , 123 , 147

Aristotle, Aristotelianism, 66 , 67 , 117 , 131 , 133

Euclidean model, 222

Animalcules, 148 , 159 , 158 , 204

Animals: in air pump, 159 -160

compared to plants, 135 , 148 , 165

distinguished from plants, 214

illustrations of, 194 -195, 213 .

See also Anatomy; Chemical analysis; Histoire des animaux; Natural history; Physiology; Plant-animals

Antidotes. See Poisons and antidotes

Antipathy and sympathy, theory of. See Sympathy and antipathy, theory of

Aqueducts: of Arcueil, 44

for water supply of Versailles, 50 , 55 .

See also Frontinus

Architecture, 18 , 21 , 22 , 43 , 44 , 49 , 185 .

See also Blondel; Perrault, Claude; Vitruvius

Arnauld, Antoine, 19 , 201

Arts and crafts, 59

Astronomy, 20 , 53 , 56 , 58 , 225

assistants for, 210

Copernican system, 44 , 48 , 211

fictionalism of Academy about, 48

information about supplied by outsiders, 210 , 212 -213

maps of moon and stars, 44 , 211

observations of satellites of Jupiter,

― 374 ―

53 , 58

Ptolemaic system, 48

Tychonic system, 48 , 211

Atomism. See Corpuscularian and atomist theories

Attraction, concept of, 140 , 141

Audience for science. See Science

Auzout, Adrien, 41 , 156 , 203 , 295 n.3, 327 n.57, 330 n.36

Fellow of Royal Society, 202

helps Furetière, 184

B

Bacon, Sir Francis, Baconianism, 9 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 66 , 70 , 79 , 95 , 155 , 182 , 185 , 199 , 298 n.12.

See also Solomon, House of

Baluze, Étienne, scholar, 192

Baudelot de Dairval, Charles César, as collector, 195

Bauhin, Caspar and Jean, 66 , 67 , 69 , 70 , 151 , 300 n.47

Beeswax, theory of formation of, 158

Behn, Aphra, playwright, 205 , 206

Bellay, N., physician, 174 , [204] Bessé de La Chapelle, Henri de, seigneur de La Chapelle-Milon, 14 , 36 , 55 , 109 , 110 , 207

career of, 24

harangue by in 1686, 108 -110, 172 , 225

as Louvois's spokesman, 108 -110

urges study of roots, 110

Betbeder, Pierre, 127

Beze, de, 54

Bibliothèque du roi, 7 , 17 , 28 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 51 , 107 , 160 , 190 , 192 , 196 , 203 , 295 n.7, 297 n.7, 329 n.22

as headquarters for Academy, 14 , 15 , 38 -43

as living quarters for savants, 20 , 41 -42, 334 nn.80-81

refurbishment of houses of, 39

visit of Louis XIV to, 80

Bignon, abbé Jean Paul, 14 , 20 , 36 , 59 , 99 , 111 , 113

family of, 196

role of in Academy, 24

Biological sciences. See under Natural philosophical research of Academy

Black, Max, on metaphor, 122

Bled-cornu. See Ergot

Blegny, Nicolas, 185 , 191 , 192 , 193 , 194

as collector, 196

director of Société royale de la médecine, 196

Blondel, Nicolas François, sieur des Croisettes et de Gallardon, 44 , 49 , 202 , 206 , 208 , 331 n.61

books of in Parisian libraries, 185

as collector, 195

helps Furetière, 184

teaches architecture, 197

Blood, theories about circulation of, 21 , 59 , 119 , 120 , 123 , 125 -128, 130 , 132

Cartesian model, 127 , 312 n.33

Harveian model, 125 -126, 127 -128

Riolan's model, 126 -127

theory established in France, 127 -128, 130

Boccone, Paolo, 70 , 207 , 307 n.29, 332 n.66

Book trade: in Paris, 184 -185, 187 , 191 -192, 325 nn.24, 27

problems of under Louis XIV, 191 , 201 .

See also Censorship

Borelli, Giovanni Alfonso, 139 , 141 , 142 , 206 , 317 n.4, 331 n.56, 335 n.96

Borelly, Jacques, 18 , 95 , 96 , 97 , 102 , 110 , 150 , 151 , 293 n.24, 304 n.35, 327 n.57, 332 n.65, 333 n.71, 336 n.102

and air pump, 160 , 319 n.22

career of, 20

helps Furetière, 184

lodged in Royal Library, 41 , 55

role of in Academy, 44 , 54 , 55 , 95 , 96 , 97

Bosse, Abraham, 76 , 80 , 81 , 84

academicians criticize his illustrations of plants, 82

Botany: audience for in Paris, 185

"botanique," 18 , 70

a changing discipline, 61 , 65 -67, 70 , 117 , 118 , 119 , 131 , 153 , 165 , 224 -225

develops independently in England and France, 214

eclecticism of, 153 -154

study of by Academy, 9 , 17 -23, 65 -88, 89 -102, 103 -116, 117 -130, 131 -144, 145 -154, 155 -165, 203 -204, 212 -213, 215 , 217 , 225 .

See also under Natural philosophical research of Academy

Boucot, Nicolas, collector, 195

Boulduc, Simon, 111 , 172

teaches at Jardin royal, 38

Bourdelin, Claude, 18 , 41 , 132 , 285 n.2

career of, 16 , 19 , 171 , 201 , 298 -299 n.18, 334 n.86

medical interests of, 173 , 175 , 204

method of, 91 -92, 93 -94, 95 , 99 , 100

notebooks of, 19 , 50 , 96 , 99 , 292 -293 nn.24, 25

possible portrait of, 40

as purchasing agent for crown, 50 , 285 n.4

responsible for chemical analysis, 74 , 79 , 80 , 82 , 89 , 99 , 100 , 101 , 102 , 104 , 107 , 109 , 110 , 146 , 150 -151, 301 n.53, 305 n.57

role of in Academy, 19 , 96 , 151 , 182

work of assessed by Dodart, Homberg, and Tournefort, 20 , 82 , 87 , 90 , 99 , 111 , 113 , 114 , 152

works at home, 55

Bourdelot, Pierre Michon, 20 , 21 , 22 , 195 , 196 , 205

― 375 ―

Bournonville, Alexandre Hippolyte Balthazar and Jeanne Françoise d'Aremberg, prince et princesse de, 44

Boyle, Robert, 152 , 204 , 215

and air pump, 160 , 164 , 312 -313 n.34, 320 n.27

book by for sale in Paris, 191

and capillary tubes, 139

and Huygens, 203

and Mariotte, 18 , 91

sees chemistry as central, 102 , 124

work of reviewed by Academy, 83 , 213 -214, 217 , 325 n.17

Brice, Germain, 44

Butterfield, Michael, maker of mathematical instruments, 45 , 48 , 192 , 193 , 210 -211

C

Cabinet du roi, 39

Calendars: for sale in Paris, 194

study of, 58

Campani, Giuseppe, lens maker, 44

Canguilhem, Georges, on analogy, 120 , 121 , 122 , 144

Capillarity, 138 , 139 -140, 141 , 142 , 157

Carcavi, Pierre de, 14 , 60 , 294 n.44, 327 n.57

associated with both Academy and Bibliothèque du roi, 39 , 51

handles finances of Academy, 50 , 285 n.4

lodged at Bibliothèque du roi, 41 , 334 n.80

Cartesianism. See Descartes

Cartography: influence of Academy on, 192 , 198 , 211 , 223

map of France by Academy, 21 , 22 , 32 , 49 -50

map of généralité de Paris by Academy, 32

map of world by Academy, 22 , 44 , 49 -50, 53

D

Dalancé, maker of air pumps, 320 n.27

Dalesma, André, 55 , 193 , 211

Davison, William, 89

Deaubonne, Daniel, monk and instrument maker, 194

Deglos, received advance for expenses, 50 , 295 n.4, 333 n.72

Deiconti, 97

Delamare, Nicolas, 192

Denis, Jean Baptiste, sponsor of scientific meetings, 21 , 196

Descartes, René, 9 , 29 , 119 , 125 , 126 , 127 , 130 , 182 , 191

influence of, 23 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 141 , 196 , 199 , 222 .

See also Blood

Des Hayes, 295 n.4, 333 n.72

Dew, 152 -153, 164

Dictionaries, "battle of," 183 .

See also Académie française; Furetière

Digby, Sir Kenelm, 160 , 164 , 203 , 331 n.45

Dippy, interpreter, 298 n.14

Dissections, 39 , 41 , 42

of animals, 38 , 334 n.81

assistants for, 210

autopsies of academicians and others, 38 , 54 , 292 n.14

of fish, 32

risks, of, 95

supply of animals for, 39 , 51 , 52 , 54 , 59

Distillants, 90 , 91 , 100 , 101 , 151 , 157 , 305 n.53

debates about, 91 , 92

identification of, 93 , 94 , 95 , 109

oils in plants, 90 , 92 , 94 , 99 -100, 151 , 152

salts compared in animals, earths, plants, and waters, 150 , 152 -153

salts in plants, 90 , 93 , 94 , 99 -100, 153

spirits in plants, 90 , 94

testes-mortes of plants, 93 , 95 , 151

Distillation, 73 , 82 , 89 , 104 , 151

choice of plants for, 95 , 103

controversial, 90 -93, 94 , 96

Dodart's influence on,

― 377 ―

effects of, 90 , 92

goals of, 94 , 101 -102

limits of, 94 , 98 , 99

method of, 90 , 91 -92, 93 -95

results of, 101 .

See also Medicine, and pharmacology

Divini, Eustachio, lens maker, 44

Do, enameler and instrument maker, 193

Dodart, Denis, 18 , 19 , 23 , 104 , 178 , 185 , 190 , 209 , 212 , 214 , 327 n.57, 328 n.9, 330 n.34, 333 n.70, 334 -335 n.91

career and education of, 19 , 26 , 103 , 172

and chemical analyses of plants, 82 , 89 , 90 , 91 -92, 93 -94, 96 , 98 , 99 , 100 , 101 , 104 , 109 , 303 -304 n.34, 304 -305 n.46, 331 n.61

and Duclos, 83 , 87 , 97 , 103 , 104 , 110 , 111 , 225

family of, 20

a Jansenist, 19 , 23 , 178 , 201

and natural history of plants, 48 , 55 , 75 , 79 , 80 , 103 , 107 , 110 , 111 , 114 , 115 , 300 n.40, 302 n.64, 317 n.5

and neologisms, 184

and poor, 171 , 176 , 178 -179

possible portrait of, 40

protégé of Perrault, 83

role of in Academy, 83 , 87 , 94 -95, 96 , 114 , 182

sends Mémoires des plantes to Grew, Locke, and Morison, 202 , 214

studies ergotism, 171 , 174 -176, 178 -179, 204

studies nutrition and medicine, 96 , 173

studies plant anatomy and physiology, 146 , 147 , 149 , 150 , 157 ;

and Tournefort, 113 , 114 -115

Dubé, Paul, physician, 174 , 178 , [204]

Duclos, Samuel Cottereau, 17 , 18 -19, 20 , 23 , 48 , 201 , 293 n.25, 299 n.32, 301 n.50, 305 n.46, 311 n.13, 312 -313 n.34, 316 n.37, 331 n.61

career of, 18 -19, 172

and chemical analysis, 18 , 48 , 50 , 73 , 82 , 83 , 89 , 90 , 92 , 93 , 96 -97, 98 , 102 , 108 , 109 , 169 , 172

and circulation of sap, 119 , 132 , 164

controversial views of, 18 -19, 43 , 83 , 87 , 96 -97, 173 , 205 , 206

and Dodart, 55 , 83 , 87 , 97 , 103 , 225

lodged at Bibliothèque du roi, 41 , 55

and natural history of plants, 73 -75, 79 , 80 , 82 -83, 87 , 90 , 97 , 98 , 103

and plant physiology, 150 , 152 -153

Protestant, 19 , 43 , 55

possible portrait of, 40

reviews work of Boyle, 214 , 335 n.101

role of in Academy, 83 , 87 , 182

and Tournefort, 114

Du Hamel, Jean Baptiste, 14 , 18 , 19 , 25 , 36 , 104 , 107 , 200 , 206 , 288 -289 n.42, 292 n.24, 331 n.61, 336 n.101

career of, 22 -23

as historian of Academy, 23 , 184 , 298 n.15

in London, 51 , 202

possible portrait of, 40

as purchasing agent for Academy, 51 , 285 n.4

role of in Academy, 13 , 14 , 18 , 22 , 110 , 182 , 318 n.14

Du Verney, Joseph Guichard, 18 , 26 , 59 , 172 , 214 , 293 n.29, 295 n.15, 331 n.61

attends meetings sponsored by Geoffroy, 196

career of, 21

and Jardin royal, 38 , 41

Du Vivier, David, royal geographer, 211 , 333 n.76

as collector, 195

E

Eau de vie, used during dissections and as remedy, 41 , 95

Education, scientific, 197 -198, 200 -201.

See also Académie royale des sciences, functions and goals of

Elephant, scientific and public interest in, 26 , 194 , 335 n.100

Emboîtement,148 , 149 , 157

England, 101 , 119 , 209

ties of academicians to, 21 , 22 , 23 , 58 , 99 , 172

Engravers and engravings, 79 , 157

of animals, 59

of arts and crafts, 59

expenditure on, 48 , 51 , 54 , 58

of plants, 22 , 51 , 54 , 58 , 207 .

See also Bosse; Chastillon; Illustrations of plants; Robert

"Engyscope," 318 n.6

Ergot, 174 , 175 , 204 , 212

as cause of ergotism, 174 , 176 , 178

description of, 174 , 176

illustration of, 177

obstetric uses of, 174

Ergotism, 171 , 174 -179, 204

"Ethereal matter," existence of posited by Homberg, 162 , 163

Exchange, scholarly, 180 , 198 , 201 -203, 205

Anglo-French, 202 -203

of ideas and of data, 217

limits on, 198 , 200 -201, 215 -217

methods of, 196 , 198 , 199 , 211 , 215 , 217

between scientific societies, 205

as struggle between contestants, 215 -216.

See also Académie royale des sciences; Correspondence

Expeditions, scientific, 32 , 34 , 50 , 51 , 53 , 58 , 107 , 209 , 293 n.25, 333 n.75.

See also Jesuits

Experiments, 119 , 210 , 211 .

See also Ideals

—botanical, 142 , 149 , 153 , 160 -166

in air pump, 159 -166

models for, 119

relating to circulation of sap, 119 , 134 -135, 136 -137, 141 -142; role of, 146 , 225

― 378 ―

— medical, 99 , 173 , 179

Explanation, 109 , 121 , 139 -142, 144

chemical, 67 , 118 , 127 , 129 -130, 138 -139, 141 , 142 , 145 -154, 225

of exceptions, 148

by "faculties" or souls, 131 , 150 , 164 , 312 -313 n.34

mechanistic, 67 , 95 , 118 , 125 -127, 129 -130, 134 , 131 , 137 , 138 , 139 -141, 145 -154, 225

by multiple causation, 141 , 142 , 145

by reduction, 120 , 121

teleological, 90 , 125 -126

and theology, 146 , 149

vitalist, 125 -126.

See also Analogical reasoning; Analogies; Corpuscularian and atomist theories

F

Fagon, Guy Crescent, 20 , 38 , 107 , 201 , 207 , 296 n.33, 330 n.32

Falling bodies, studies of, 44

Fantet de Lagny. See Lagny

Far East, 58

coordinates of cities in, 49

scientific data and specimens from, 53 -54, 111 , 112 , 195 , 212 -213

Fer, Nicolas de, cartographer and royal geographer, 192

Ferry, Paul, 201

Flora, geographical origins of, 71 , 74 , 82 , 111 , 213 , 334 n.81.

See also Far East

Florence, scholarly center, 31 , 208

Foley, Samuel, 149

Fontaney, de, sponsor of scientific meetings, 196

Fontenay, Henri François or Claude de, painter of flowers and animals, 195

Fontenelle, Bernard Le Bovier de, 18 , 19 , 90 , 92 , 201 , 207 , 296 n.21, 315 n.16, 319 n.25

career of, 22 -23

collects reimbursements for other academicians, 50

historian of Academy, 18 , 22 , 23 , 184 , 202 , 212 , 298 n.15, 301 n.57, 309 n.49

role of in Academy, 14 , 182

Food chain, study of, 99 , 153

Fouquet, Nicolas, 172

Frenicle de Bessy, Bernard, 17

Frontinus, treatise on aqueducts, 22 , 55 Furetière, Antoine, 20 , 74 , 183

G

Gaignières, François Roger de, collector, 195

Galen, 126 .

See also Medicine

Galileo, 119

books by read in Paris, 185

telescope of, 155 , 195

Gallois, abbé Jean, 14 , 18 , 23 , 187 , 327 n.57, 334 n.81

career of, 22

edit Journal des sçavans , 191

possible portrait of, 40

teaches at Collège royal, 197

urges study of roots, 110

Galls, cause of, 110

Garden, Royal. See Jardin royal; Petit jardin

Gardens and gardening, 25 , 191 , 194 , 195 , 197 ; 196 , 203 , 213 , 289 n.45

horticulture not an interest of Academy, 194

Gassendi, Pierre, books by read in Paris, 185

Gaston, duke of Orléans, 19 , 71 , 73 , 127 , 194 , 202 , 223

influence of on Academy, 71 , 75

Gayant, Louis, 171 , 172 , 334 n.81

possible portrait of, 42

Généralité de Paris , map of, 49 , 51

Generation of plants and animals, 70 , 145

spontaneous, 145 -149.

See also Emboîtement; Physiology; Preformation

Gennes, Jean Baptiste de, 332 n.67, 334 n.81

Geoffroy, Étienne François, 293 n.25, 325 n.19, 328 n.16, 336 n.106

Geoffroy, Mathieu François, sponsor of scientific meetings, 196 , 328 n.16

Geography: books on popular among Parisian readers, 185 , 191 , 192

royal geographer, 192 , 211

Gérard, André and André Guillaume, cutlers, 39

Germination, 146 , 209 , 214

mechanical explanation of, 149

roles of external and internal factors in, 147 , 149 -151, 160 -165, 166 .

See also Physiology

Gesner, Conrad, 298 n.13

Ginseng, 111 , 213

Glaser, Christophe, chemist, 89 , 94

Gloire , 200

desire for, 206 , 216

Gobelins, 32 , 297 n.38

Gosselin, Georges, mathematical instrument maker, 44 , 192

Gouye, Thomas, S.J., 54 , 208 , 332 n.65

Goyton, Jean, engraver, 6 , 292 n.16

Grande écurie, 16

Gresham College, 139 , 203

Grew, Nehemiah, 102 , 117 , 147 , 149 , 154 , 158 , 202 , 203 , 214 , 215 , 317 n.4

on anatomy of plants, 67 , 132 , 307 n.29, 311 n.5, 336 n.106;

on circulation of sap, 119 , 137 , 312 n.33

Guglielmini, Domenico, 36 , 172

Guiffart, Pierre, 127 , 128

― 379 ―

"Guinea pigs," human and animal, 173 , 179

Guise, duchesse de, 201

H

Hales, Stephen, 141

Haller, Albrecht von, 123

Hartsoeker, Nicolas, 58 , 203 , 204 , 210

makes lenses, 44

and spherical microscope, 158 , 319 n.20

supervises production of glass for scientific instruments, 53

Harvey, William, 9 , 119 , 123 , 132 , 133 , 138 , 144 , 311 n.9, 315 n.19

defenders and detractors of in France, 127 -128

influence of, 120 , 124 , 125 -126, 127 , 128 -130, 131 , 134 -137, 138 , 142 .

See also Analogical reasoning; Blood

Hautefeuille, abbé Jean de, 332 n.66

Heart, 138

functions of, 125 , 126 -127

motions of, 125 , 126 -127

Helmont, Joan Baptista van, 91 , 97 , 124 , 152

Herbelot de Molainville, Barthélemy d', sponsor of learned society, 327 n.51

Hesse, Mary, on analogy, 120 , 121 , 132 -133, 137 , 143

Hevelius, Johannes, 31

Hierarchy, of forms of life, 132 , 136 , 137 .

See also Académie royale des sciences; Community

Histoire des animaux , 18 , 59 , 207

installments of planned, 54 .

See also Anatomy; Natural history

Holland, regarded as rival of France, 31 , 32 .

See also Hartsoeker; Huygens; Leeuwenhoek

Homberg, Guillaume, 18 , 23 , 98

and air pump, 160 , 161 -165, 297 n.37, 308 n.36, 336 n.101

appointment of helps revive Academy, 19 -20, 24 , 111 , 225

attends meetings sponsored by Geoffroy, 196

career of, 20 , 172 , 202 , 211 -212

collects reimbursements for other academicians, 50

and distillation of plants, 90 , 92 , 95 , 99 , 287 n.21, 305 n.53

and medicine, 99

and natural history of plants, 103 , 111 , 114

and plant physiology, 146 , 152 , 153 , 160 , 161 -165

role of in Academy, 59

travels of, 202

Hooke, Robert, 67 , 136 , 139 , 140 , 156 , 203 , 317 n.4, 320 n.27, 335 n.100

reviews Mémoires des plantes , 303 n.28

tests seeds in air pump, 160

Hôtel des invalides, 41 , 187

supplies corpses for dissection, 59

Hubin, enameler and instrument maker, 44 , 193 , 317 n.3, 333 n.68

Huilliot, Claude, painter of plants and animals, 195

Huygens, Christiaan, 14 , 18 , 20 , 36 , 43 , 49 , 60 , 156 , 202 , 208 , 213 , 289 n.42, 326 n.38, 327 n.57, 331 n.61

and air pump, 160 -162, 162 , 163 -164, 165 , 193 , 212

and capillary tubes, 139

celebrity in Academy, 13 , 35

and Charas, 172 ;

as collector, 195

correspondents of, 203 , 331 n.45

enemies of, 159 , 206

lodged in Bibliothèque du roi, 41 , 43 , 334 n.81

and natural history, 70 , 71 , 74 , 79

portrait of, 42 ;

receives information about Academy, 22 , 95 , 109 , 110 , 207 , 288 n.38

on rise of sap. 140 , 142

role of in Academy, 14 , 182

and spherical microscope, 158 , 159 , 204

and study of plants, 21 , 132 , 158 , 160 -161, 312 -313 n.34

Huygens, Constantyn, 158

Hydraulics, 49 , 50 , 59 , 222

hydraulic machines, 56

Hydrography, teaching of, 16

Hydrostatics, study of, 18

I

Ideals, scholarly, 27 -29, 209

conflict between ideal and practice, 205 -215, 224 -225

cooperation, 29 , 169 , 180 , 199 -217

experiment, 5 , 7 , 115 -116, 155 -156, 181 , 215 , 222 , 225

reform, 29 -30, 113 , 222

utility, 182 .

See also Académie royale des sciences, functions and goals of; Utility

Illustrations of plants, 213 . See also Engravers and engravings; Gaston; Plants

—commissioned by Academy: 22 , 69 , 73 , 75 , 80 , 88 , 110 , 111 , 113 , 223

published in eighteenth century, 80 , 114 , 115

scientific standards for, 71 , 75 , 80 , 82 , 107 , 157 , 298 n.18, 300 n.38, 317 n.5

shortcomings of, 68 , 73 , 80 -83, 86 , 104 , 112

size of, 82

Imprimerie royale, 191 , 192 , 208 , 209

typeface for, 59

Imprimeurs du roi, 191 , 208

Industry, interest of Academy in, 49 , 110 , 169 .

See also Machines Practical projects of Academy

Instrument makers, scientific, 39 , 44 , 45 , 187 , 194 , 198 , 320 n.27

and Academy, 192 -193

essential to experimental

― 380 ―

science, 193 , 200

shops of, 190 , 192 -194.

See also names of individuals

Instruments and apparatus, scientific, 7 , 18 , 20 , 22 , 55 , 118 , 156 , 192 -194.

See also names of instrument makers; Air pump; Chemistry; Clocks; Inventions; Lenses; Microscopy

—and botanical research, 61 , 146 , 154 , 155 -166, 225

—demonstrational, 44 -45, 48 , 210 -211, 329 n.25

burning mirrors, 26 , 48 , 53 , 54

globes, 45

lodestone, 194

planisphere, 45 , 48 , 210 -211

"talking" ephemerides, 44

—observational, 23 , 44 -45, 329 n.25

aerometer, 156 , 165 , 193

astronomical and mathematical, 44 , 155 , 156 , 159 , 193 , 194

compass, 207

magnetic needle, 44 , 58

meteorological, 155 , 156 , 165 , 193

microscope, 23 , 51 , 157 , 159

supplied to Jesuit missionaries, 53 , 210

surveying, 18 , 156 , 193

—portrayed, 6 , 40 , 42

—purchase and maintenance of for Academy, 34 , 43 , 44 -45, 48 , 50 , 51 , 53 , 58 , 165 , 210 -211

—role of in new science, 154 , 155 -156, 159 , 160 , 166

Interdisciplinary links amoung the sciences, 118 , 144 , 153 -154, 156 , 165 , 166 , 225 .

See also Analogies; Sap

Inventions, 156 , 193 , 222

assessed by Academy, 49 , 55 , 56 , 59 .

See also Académie royale des sciences, functions of Dalesme Machines

J

James II, king of England, visits Academy, 7 , 294 nn.40, 43, 296 n.21, 335 n.96

Jansenism, Jansenists, 19 , 23 , 178 , 187 , 190 , 200 , 201 , 223

pedagogues, 197

Jardin royal, 7 , 16 , 17 , 20 , 21 , 23 , 41 , 45 , 147 , 171 -172, 187 , 193 , 213 , 217

scientific collections of, 80 , 195

ties of with Academy, 15 , 38 -39, 79 , 82 , 107 , 114 , 195 , 296 n.33

teaching at, 38 , 89 , 93 , 114 , 127 , 197 -198, 332 n.63.

K

Kepler, Johannes, 128

Kermes, seed or insect, 214

King's Library. See Bibliothèque du roi

Kircher, Athanasius, 206

Kunckel, Johann, 202

L

La Beurthe, surgeon, 293 n.26

Laboratories, private, 27 , 55 .

See also Académie royale des sciences

La Brosse, Guy de, 71

La Chambre, Marin Cureau de, 17 , 171

books by read in Paris, 185

opposes neologisms, 183

La Chapelle. See Bessé de la Chapelle

La Faye, 294 n.40

Lagny, mathematical instrument maker, 44 , 192

Lagny, Thomas Fantet de, 36

Fellow of Royal Society, 202

La Hire, Gabriel Philippe de, 18 , 22 , 23 , 111

La Hire, Philippe de, 18 , 19 , 44 , 55 , 157 , 158 , 165 , 182 , 197 , 206 , 207 , 208 , 214 , 222 , 294 n.35, 296 n.21, 302 n.62, 324 n.5, 326 n.33, 331 n.61, 337 n.112

career of, 21 -22

on circulation of sap, 119 , 136 -137, 140 , 141 -142, 144

dissects fish, 32

keeps Huygens informed, 95 , 109 , 110

revives study of plant physiology, 110

role of in Academy, 182

studies fig and orange trees, 111

teaches at Collège royal, 197

La Hyre, Laurent, 21

La Londe, engineer, his arithmetic for engineers for sale, 191

Langlade, de, 172

Language, scientific, 22 , 27 , 223 , 318 n.6

in botany, 73 , 214 , 298 n.18

shift to vernacular, 73 -74, 75 , 88 , 127 -128, 153 , 182 , 183 -184, 223

in technology, 183

Languages: knowledge of, 200 , 298 n.15, 325 n.17, 335 n.100

study or teaching of, 20 , 21 , 328 n.65

Lannion, abbé Pierre de, 14 , 307 n.16

Lanterns, magic, 194

Lantin, Jean Baptiste, 201 , 204

La Quintinie, Jean de, 194 , 203 , 329 n.28

― 381 ―

La Roque, abbé, sponsor of scientific meetings, 196

Le Bas, mathematical instrument maker, 44 , 192

Le Brun, Charles, autopsy of by Academy, 54

Le Clerc, Sébastien, 5 -8, 15 , 41

portraits of Academy by, 6 , 40 , 42

Lecture-demonstrations, scientific and medical, 182 , 196 .

See also Jardin royal

Leeuwenhoek, Antony van, 203 , 204

Le Febvre, Jean, 36

Le Febvre, Nicaise, chemist, 19 , 90 , 93 , 132 , 201

Le Gallois, Pierre, 181

Le Guern, mathematical instrument maker, 44

Leibniz, Gottfried, Wilhelm, 36 , 332 nn.65, 66

Lémery, Nicolas, 20 , 21 , 90 , 98 , 209

book for sale in Paris, 191

offers instruction in chemistry, 197

Lenses, 20 , 44 , 194

for telescopes, 58 , 210

tested, 53 .

See also Borelly; Campani; Divini; Hartsoeker

Léonard (de Sainte Cathérine), père, 207

L'Hospital, Guillaume François Antoine, marquis de Sainte-Mesme, 16 , 36

Lhwyd, Edward, 202

Librarian, royal, 24

Libraries, private, 182 , 185 , 215 .

See also Bibliothèque du roi

Life, ideas about nature of, 133

Linnaeus, Carl von, 20

Lister, Martin, 41 , 44 , 186 , 191 , 194 , 196 , 200 , 201 , 202 , 211 , 214 , 292 n.18, 294 n.40, 321 n.7, 325 n.19, 328 n.16, 337 n.113

Literacy in France, 184

Literature, scientific and technical: by academicians for sale in Paris, 191 , 192

Academy's use of, 213 -214, 215 , 309 n.1

herbals, 117

manuals for practitioners, 191

periodicals, 199

specialized bookshops for in Paris, 191 -192

tastes in, 184 -185.

See also Journal des sçavans ; Language; Philosophical Transactions

Locke, John, 44 , 159 , 187 , 193 , 194 , 200 , 202 -203, 305 n.58, 312 n.26, 327 n.46, 336 n.110

London, 181 , 187

as scholarly and cultural center, 16 , 51 , 203

Longitude, problem of determining at sea, 32 , 49 , 52

Louis XIII, 171

Louis XIV, 20 , 23 , 34 , 169 , 170 , 172 , 178 , 193 , 201 , 221 , 226 , 293 n.32, 298 n.15

and individual academicians, 26 , 103 , 172

illness of, 103 , 108 , 109 , 172 , 225

nurseries and orangerie of, 74 , 110

patronage of sought by English savants, 203

portrait of, 6

visits Gobelins, 32 .

See also Académie royale des sciences: and Louis XIV; and war

Louvois, Michel François Le Tellier, marquis de, 13 , 14 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 24 , 32 , 82 , 208 , 225

appoints academicians, 52 , 53 , 54 , 56 , 223

compared with Colbert and Pontchartrain, 46 , 47 , 52 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 111

garden of, 194

hôtel of, 38 , 190

and natural history of plants, 25 , 52 , 56 , 80 , 107 -111

policies of regarding Academy, 25 , 36 -38, 46 , 51 -56, 59 , 110 , 223

utilitarian demands of, 52 , 55 , 56 , 107 -110, 172

Louvre, headquarters of Academy from 1699, 39

LSD poisoning. See Ergotism

Luxembourg, Madeleine Charlotte de Clermont Tonnerre, duchesse de, 44

Lysergic acid diethylamide. See Ergot

M

Mabillon, Dom Jean, 201

Macard, instrument maker, 193

Machines, 20 , 55 -56

hydraulic, 50 , 55 , 56

models of, 44 , 49 , 156 , 210

salle des machines,44 , 195

Magnetic variation, 207

Magnol, Pierre, 213

Major, Johann Daniel, 67 , 119 , 132

Malpighi, Marcello, 21 , 154 , 201 , 203 , 214 , 215 , 315 n.19, 317 n.4

books by read in Paris, 185 , 311 n.5

study of anatomy and physiology of plants by, 67 , 117 , 119 , 132 , 307 n.29, 312 n.30

Mandrake root, 82 , 84 , 85

Maps. See Cartography

Marchant, Nicolas and Jean, 146 , 147 , 204 , 213 , 309 n.1, 329 n.28

coin neologisms, 184

library of, 185 , 214 , 308 n.29, 337 n.115

revise Bauhin's Pinax , 70 , 111

and Tournefort, 113 , 114 , 115

work on natural history of plants, 74 , 75 , 79 , 80 , 82 , 104 , 107 , 110 , 111 , 114 , 302 n.64.

See also Plants, rare

—Jean, son of Nicolas, 18 , 19 , 23 , 82 , 104 , 111 , 148 , 203 , 214 , 300 n.43, 301 n.53, 301 -302 n.60

career of,

― 382 ―

and Jardin royal, 38 , 80 , 296 n.33

role of in Academy, 96

—Nicolas, 18 , 19 , 104 , 202 , 213

career of, 19 , 71 , 73 , 172

cultivates plants, 175 , 314 n.7

and circulation of sap, 119

establishes petit jardin , 79

and Jardin royal, 38

possible portrait of, 40

and Robert Morison, 214

role of in Academy, 96

writes Description de quelques plantes nouvelles,75 , 80 , 87 , 329 n.26

Margrave [Marcgrave or Markgrav or Marggraf], Georg, 70

Mariotte, abbé Edme, 18 , 19 , 23 , 43 , 44 , 50 , 90 , 165 , 200 , 203 , 206 , 209 , 222 , 325 n.17, 327 n.57, 329 n.30, 331 n.61, 331 -332 n.63

autopsy of, 54

on chemical analyses of plants, 90 , 91 , 92 , 98 , 113 , 287 n.21

on circulation of sap, 119 , 131 , 132 -138, 140 -141, 142

on plant anatomy, 157 -158

on plant physiology, 147 -150, 151 , 152 , 153 , 164 , 201 , 204 , 214

possible portrait of, 42

role of in Academy, 132 , 182

Marly, royal palace at, 194

Marly tower, 43 , 44 , 56 , 57

Martet, Jean, 127 , 128

Martin, Henri-Jean, 185

Mathematical sciences studied at Academy, 21 , 58 , 225 .

See also Académie royale des sciences, finances of Astronomy; Instruments and apparatus; Literature

Matte La Faveur, Sébastien, 89

Mechanics, study of principles of, 49 , 222

Medici, Cosimo, Giovanni Carlo, and Leopoldo de', 156 , 206 , 334 nn.80, 81

Medicine, 25 , 48 , 99 , 102 , 135 , 178 , 215 , 221 , 222 , 225

autopsies, 38 , 54

and botany, 22 , 66 , 70 , 87 , 89 , 91 , 94 , 96 , 98 , 100 , 101 -102, 108 , 109 , 113 , 114 , 170 , 171 , 172

chemical, 171 , 172

faculties of, 20 , 127 -128, 171 -172, 174 , 202

Galenic, 172 , 173

and pharmacology, 20 , 171 , 173 , 210

for poor, 19 , 170 , 174 -176, 178 -179, 184 , 204 , 212 , 295 n.13

and public health, 171 , 176 , 178

writings on by academicians, 172 .

See also Académie royale des sciences; Ergotism; "Guinea pigs"; Literature;

Société royale de la médecine

Mémoires des animaux. See Histoire des animaux

Mémoires des plantes75 , 79 , 80 , 83 , 87 , 90 , 93 , 95 , 100 , 101 , 103 , 202 , 207 , 213 , 303 n.28

installments of planned, 54 , 103 -104, 107 , 111 , 113 , 114

presented to Grew and Morison, 214

as smokescreen, 101

Ménage, Gilles, 286 n.9

Menageries, 194 .

See also Versailles

Mentel, Jacques, 127 , 128

Meridian, extension of in France, 21 , 22 , 49 -50

canceled, 43 , 55

revived, 58 , 59

Méry, Jean, 21 , 41 , 59 , 172 , 293 n.29

taught at Jardin royal, 38

Meteorological observations, 44

Meurisse, received advance for expenses, 50

Microcosm-macrocosm, 119 , 120 , 129 , 131

Micrographia,67 , 203

Microscopy, 149

and anatomy of plants, 137 , 146 , 157 -159

ancillary to other ways of studying plants, 159

and illustration of plants, 75 , 82

instruments used (compound and spherical microscope, hand lens, loupe), 82 , 136 , 137 , 155 , 156 , 157 , 158 -159, 194 , 204

and physiology of plants, 149 , 157 -159, 163

value of in botanical research, 65 , 70 , 118 , 154 , 158 -159, 165 -166.

See also "Engyscope"; Instruments and apparatus

Migon, maker of globes and mathematical instruments, 44 , 45

Military: fortification a popular subject among Parisian readers, 185

interest of academicians in inventions and techniques for, 49 , 169 , 208 , 222 .

See also Literature

Mimosa. See Plants, sensitive

Mineralogy, 21 , 59

Mineral waters, analysis of. See Chemical analysis of waters

Mining, 20

interest in of academicians, 202

Mirrors, cylindrical, for sale in Paris, 194

Model. See Analogies

Montmor, Henri Louis Habert de, 20 , 202 , 205

Academy of, 206

Moray, Sir Robert, 203 , 331 n.45

Morin (de Toulon), 18 , 111 , 172

career of, 21

Morin, Louis, 200

as collector, 195

garden of, 203

― 383 ―

Morison, Robert, 70 , 80 , 147 , 202 , 214 , 302 n.60, 311 n.9

and classification of plants, 67 , 75

N

Natural history, 32 , 46 , 48 , 51 , 54 -55, 56 , 212 -213.

See also Chemical analysis; Illustration of plants; Natural philosophy

—of animals, 70 , 95 , 222

—of arts and crafts, 59

—audience for, 185 , 194 -195

—data about solicited, 212 -213

—of plants, 19 , 25 , 48 , 54 -55, 65 -88, 89 -102, 103 -116, 215 , 222 , 225

conflicting views about, 70 -79, 83 , 87 , 109

choice of plants for, 69 , 73 , 74 , 88

Colbert and, 65 -88, 103 -107

collaboration on, 67 , 69 , 74 , 79 -80, 82 -83

cultivating and describing plants for, 69 , 73 , 75 , 79 -80, 88 , 104 , 110 , 111 , 299 n.33

directors of, 73 , 75 , 83 , 87

failure of, 65 , 69 , 88 , 102 , 103 -116, 225

geographical scope of, 73 , 74 , 114 , 115

goals of, 108

installments of planned, 54 , 103 -104, 107 , 111 , 113 , 114

Louvois and, 107 -111

Pontchartrain and, 111 , 113 -115

review of literature for, 80

patronage and, 69

theft of manuscripts for, 103 , 104 , 225

traditional and innovative elements in, 67 , 69 , 74

and Tournefort, 113 , 114

—related to natural philosophy and medicine, 65 -67, 69 , 70 , 79 , 101 , 108 , 109 , 173 -174

Natural philosophical research of Academy. See Académie royale des sciences, finances of; Air pump; Illustrations; Microscopy; names of individual academicians ; Natural history; Natural philosophy; Physiology; Plants

Natural philosophy: distinguished from natural history, 65 -66, 70 , 79 , 101 , 118 , 145 , 146 , 154 .

See also Anatomy; Natural history; Physiology

Navigation, 191

interest of Academy in, 48 , 169

Newton, Sir Isaac, 119 , 335 n.96

Niquet, Antoine de, 182 , 211 , 291 n.6

Nolin, Jean Baptiste, engraver, 294 n.40

Nomenclature, anatomical, 122 -123.

See also Plants, names of

Nutrition of plants. See Physiology, vegetable

Nutrition of animals and humans: diet and social hierarchy, 176 , 178

Dodart's study of, 19 , 96 , 99 , 100 , 103 -104

Dodart's theory of digestion, 173

study of food chain, 99 , 153

value of plants in, 91 , 98 , 102 , 108 , 110 , 171 .

See also Chemical analysis

O

Observatoire, 7 , 18 , 22 , 26 , 31 , 34 , 38 , 41 , 43 -45, 56

cost of, 43 , 47 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 57 , 187 , 190 , 195 , 197 , 198 , 203 , 210

grounds of, 43 -44

porter of, 57

purpose and functions of, 15 , 43 -45, 197

as symbol of Academy's corporate identity, 223

visitors to, 44 .

See also Cartography, map of world by Academy

Observatories, private, 27

Oldenburg, Henry, 202 , 203 , 205 , 215 , 330 n.36

Orangerie, 74 , 110

study of trees in, 110 , 111

Orléans, dukes of. See Gaston; Philippe

Oury, watchmaker, 193

Ozanam, Jacques, mathematician, 197

P

Papin, Denis, 193 , 212 , 317 n.1, 332 n.66

Paracelsus, Theophrastus Philippus Aureolus Bombastus von Hohenheim

Paracelsianism, 17 , 83 , 87 , 90 , 96 -97, 120 , 124 , 173

Pardies, Ignace Gaston, S.J., 22 , 337 n.116

Paris, 16 , 21 , 22 , 82 , 171 , 175

as magnet for ambitious, 16

—addresses serving scientific community, 327 n.55

Arsenal, 195

faubourg Saint Antoine opposite rue de Charonne, 194

faubourg Saint Honoré, 194

faubourg Saint Jacques, 187 , 193

Galeries du Louvre, 190 , 192 , 193

Palais de justice, grande salle of, 191

place de l'Hôtel de Cluny, 193

porte Montmartre, 294 n.35

quai des Augustins, 192

quai de l'Horloge, 190 , 192

quai de Morfundus, 193

quai de Nesle, 191

quai Peletier (now quai de Gesvres), 190 , 193

rue Bourlabé, 195

rue Dauphine, 194

rue du faubourg Saint Jacques, 187

rue du Harlay, 190 , 193

rue de La Harpe, 190

rue Mazarine, 187 , 193

rue neuve des Fossés, 187 , 326 n.28

rue des Postes, 294 n.35

rue Saint Denis across from rue aux Ours, 193

rue

― 384 ―

Saint Denis near Queen's Fountain, 193

rue Saint Honoré opposite church of Saint Roch, 193

rue Saint Jacques, 190 , 191 , 192

rue Saint Pierre, 190

rue Vivienne, 38 , 190

Saint Hilaire, 194

Saint Severin fountain, 191

Sainte Chapelle, steps of, 191

—description, map, and topography of, 186 -190

administrative and regal center of, 187 , 188 , 190

Cité of, 187 , 188 , 190

faubourg Saint Germain of, 203

Hôtel de Ville, 190

Jansenist landmarks in, 187 , 190

Left Bank of, 187 , 189 , 190

Marais of, 190

Palais royal district of, 38 , 190 , 194

Right Bank of, 187 , 188 , 190

university quarter of, 187 , 191 .

See also Bibliothéque du roi; Hôtel des invalides; Jardin royal; Observatoire

—hospitals in, 41 , 99 , 173 , 187 , 203

—setting for scholarly community, 159 , 164 , 170 , 180 , 181 , 186 , 190 -198

Academy's immediate theater of operations, 43 , 186

center of French book trade, 191 -192

center of scientific and mathematical education, 198

cultural center of France, 186

intellectual center of shifting, 190

scientific goods and services available in, 185 -198

scholarly landmarks in, 187 , 190

topography of scientific community in, 187 , 190 -195

university quarter of, 187 , 190

—University of, 16 , 187

medical faculty of, 127 , 128 , 172

Parkinson, John, 70 , 308 n.34

Patigny, Jean, engraver, 43

Patronage.

See also Académie royale des sciences, patronage of

Societies, learned and scientific

—private, 196

by upper robe, 190

—royal: character and effects of, 30 -33, 80 , 113 , 172 , 192 , 203 , 216 , 217 , 221 -226

on Paris, 190

on publishing, 208

on science and scientific community, 217 , 223

Pecquet, Jean, 41 , 127 , 128 , 172 , 311 n.9, 327 n.57, 334 n.81

portrait of, 42

Peiresc, Nicolas Claude Fabri de, 126

Pensions

—paid to academicians, 4 , 23 , 24 , 103 , 223 , 224

changes in, 36 -37

converted into annuities, 37 , 57 , 60

cost of, 47 , 52 , 56 , 57

nature and effects of, 35 -38, 45 , 50

—paid to individual scholars: pensions et gages,35 -36

pensions et gratifications,30 -31, 35

Pépinerie,194 , 217

Perrault, Claude, 16 , 18 , 19 , 23 , 43 , 48 , 49 , 90 , 175 , 184 , 203 , 204 , 206 , 209 , 211 , 214 , 305 n.46, 311 n.5, 331 n.61, 331 -332 n.63, 333 n.70, 334 n.81, 334 -335 n.91

autopsy of by Academy, 54

career of, 18

on chemical analysis of plants, 95 , 96 , 98

on circulation of sap, 119 , 132 -138, 141 , 142 , 164 , 312 n.30

death of, 95

on describing plants, 75

and Dodart, 83

family of, 18 , 19 , 41 , 140 , 286 n.9

on illustrating plants, 71

on natural history of plants, 70 -71, 73 , 74 , 79 , 286 n.18

on physiology of plants, 146 , 149 , 150 , 152 -153, 157

portraits of, 6 , 42

as purchasing agent for Academy, 51

role of in Academy, 182

traits of as scientist, 132 , 135

Perrault, Pierre, 140

Peter the Great, 195

Petit jardin,38 , 54 , 58 , 79 , 308 n.40

Pharmacology. See Medicine

Philippe, duke of Orléans, portrait of, 6

Philosophical Transactions,202 , 209 , 214 -215

translated for but neglected by Academy, 213 , 215 .

See also Journal d'Angleterre

Phosphorus, 202 , 211 , 336 n.101

Physiology. See also Analogical reasoning; Analogies; Anatomy; Animals; Blood; Botany; Chemical Analysis; Explanation; Generation; Germination; Natural philosophy; Nutrition; Plants; Sap

—animal, 54 , 59 , 66 , 142 , 145 , 225

influence on botany, 65

—vegetable, 70 , 79 , 91 , 110 , 117 -130, 131 -144, 145 -154, 155 -166, 214

chemical processes inside plant, 139 , 141 , 142 , 152

germination and growth, 149 -151, 160 -165, 166

growth and nutrition, 151 -153

influences on, 117 , 118 , 150

leaves, functions of, 135

life cycle, 145

Picard, abbé Jean, 44 , 203 , 294 n.35, 317 n.1, 335 n.101

and spherical microscope, 158 -159

studies pollen, 158

Pinax. See Bauhin, Caspar and Jean Marchant, Jean and Nicolas

Pivert, 182

― 385 ―

Plant-animals, 137 -138

Plantes du roi, Les , 115 .

See also Engravers and engravings

Plants: active or passive, 152 -153, 165

behavior of in air pump, 160 -166

choice of for study, 104

classifying, 20 , 59 , 70 , 71 , 73 , 75 , 113 , 209 , 214 , 222

compared with animals, earths, insects, sponges, 66 , 67 , 79 , 131 -132, 135 , 136 , 137 , 141 , 144 , 149 , 150 , 157 , 164 -165, 166 , 312 n.30

cultivating, 19 , 69 , 74 , 79 , 80 , 104 , 110

describing, 19 , 73 , 74

distinguishing among, 98

distinguishing from animals, 214

explaining effects of, 70 , 91

guttation of in a vacuum, 163 -164

illustrated, 67 , 194 -195

information about sent to Academy, 210

names of, 69 , 71 , 73 , 80 , 82 , 113 , 308 n.34

nature of sought, 70 , 98 , 100

nutrition of, 20 , 204

pollen of, 158 , 204

propagation of, 70 , 75 , 146 -147

rare and foreign, 19 , 69 , 71 , 74 , 79 , 82 , 111 , 112

research on exemplifies traits of Academy, 61

role of external factors in development of, 149 -151

roots of, 110

seeds of, 146 -147

sensitive, 67 , 68 , 82 , 297 n.1

sexuality of, 145

species of known, 70 , 117

uses of, 19 , 22 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 110 .

See also under Natural philosophical research of Academy; Physiology

Plato, Platonism, 28 , 87 , 206

Plumier, Charles, 71 , 194 , 201 , 214

Poisons and antidotes, 20 , 91 , 99 , 102 , 173

Pontchartrain, Louis Phélypeaux de, 13 , 14 , 17 , 24 , 47 , 52 , [225]

appoints academicians, 19 , 20 -21, 22 , 56 , 58 , 111 , 223

compared with Colbert and Louvois, 46 , 47 , 52 , 54 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 111

effect of on Academy, 46 , 56 -60, 80 , 110 -111, 113 , 223

hôtel of, 38 , 190

policies of, 24 , 25 , 36 -38, 46 , 47 , 56 -60, 330 n.39

Poor. See Medicine, for

Porcelain, 21 , 195

Pouilly, mathematical instrument maker, 194

"Pousser," 134

Practical projects of Academy, 44 , 48 , 49 , 51 , 56 , 59 .

See also Académie royale des sciences, finances of Agriculture; Cartography; Industry; Machines; Military; Navigation; Porcelaini; Versailles

Practitioners, scientific and technical, 182 , 183 , 210 -211

trained by Academy, 223 .

See also Literature

Preformation, 145 -149, 157

Propaganda, 30 , 31 , 65 , 223

R

Racine, Jean, friend of Dodart and Bourdelin, 19

Rainwater. See Water

Ray, John, 147 , 200 , 204 , 299 n.23, 307 -308 n.29, 312 n.30, 314 n.8, 328 -329 n.16, 336 n.110

classification of plants by, 67 , 75

on distillation of plants, 90

on need for illustrated natural history of plants, 70 , 80

Réaumur, René Antoine Ferchault de, 193

Referee. See Académie royale des sciences, functions and goals of

Reform of science and technology. See Académie royale des sciences, functions of; Ideals

Régis, Pierre Sylvain, 154 , 311 n.5, 314 n.9

Reméde des pauvres . See Medicine, for poor

Renaudot, Théophraste, 172

Reneaume, Michel Louys, 306 n.8

tries to revive natural history of plants in 1709, 114 , 302 n.65

Revolution, scientific, 3 -4, 8 , 67 , 155

scientific community during, 145 , 181 , 221 , 225

Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis, cardinal, 17

Richer, Jean, 50 , 213 , 293 n.25, 295 nn.4, 6, 333 n.75, 335 n.94

Riolan, Jean, 132

on circulation of blood, 125 , 126 -127, 130 , 136

Roannez, duke of, 19

Robert, Nicolas, painter and engraver, 80 , 194

drawings and engravings of plants, 72 , 77 , 78 , 86

watercolors of plants, 71 , 300 nn.41, 43

Roberval, Gilles Personne de, 17 , 156 , 327 , n.57

Robin, Vespasian, 213

Roemer, Ole, 44 , 45 , 202 , 203 , 294 n.35

and spherical microscope, 159

trip of to England, 99

Rohault, Jacques, 196 , 205

books by read in Paris, 185

and capillary action, 139

offers instruction in natural philosophy, 197

Rolle, Michel, offers instruction in algebra, 197

― 386 ―

Royal Academy of Architecture. See Académie royale d'architecture

Royal Garden. See Jardin royal

Royal Society (London), 22 -23, 29 , 34 , 156 , 182 , 203 , 205 , 207 , 215 , 291 n.12, 330 n.37, 331 n.45, 332 n.65

academicians as Fellows of, 202

and air pump, 160

contacts with Academy, 202

medical practitioners in, 172

Rudwick, Martin, 181 , 216

Rye, infected with ergot, 174 , 175 , 176 , 177 , 178 , 179

S

Sablé, Madeleine de Souvré, marquise de, 201

Saint Anthony's fire. See Ergotism

Saint Hilaire, 332 n.67

Saint Pierre, abbé Charles Irénée Castel de, 190

Saint-Simon, Louis de Rouvroy, duc de, 19

Salomon-Bayet, Claire, on analogy, 120 , 121

Salt, crystals of resemble corpuscles, 98 .

See also Distillants

Sanson, family of cartographers, 192

Sap:compared with blood, 132 , 133 -134, 135 -136

flow of, 21 , 214

functions of, 135 -136, 141 , 146 , 151 -152

theory that it circulates, 67 , 70 , 79 , 118 , 119 , 124 , 131 -144, 158 , 164 , 317 n.4.

See also Chemical analysis of sap

Sauveur, Joseph, 327 n.57

Scarron, Paul, poet, 186

Science: attitudes toward, 20 , 28 , 45

audience for, 170 , 181 , 182 -186, 190 , 194 -198

and culture, 226

mocked, 205 -206

and popular culture, 135 , 311 n.6

as a profession, 35 , 45 , 181 ; 223 -224

as recreation, 182 , 185 , 193 -194

reform of, 30

and religion, 201 , 203

teaching of, 44 , 190 , 197 -198, 204 , 217 , 223

and war, 201

"Scientist," word not coined yet, 4 , 181

Sébastien, père. See Truchet

Secrecy, 223

impossibility of, 207

risks of, 207

Sédileau, 18 , 44 , 55 , 294 n.40, 333 n.70

role at Academy, 22

studies disease of orange trees, 110 , 111

Seeds, 70 , 82

active or passive, 152 -153

behavior of in evacuated receiver, 160 , 162 -163

collected from around world for cultivation, 79

dispersal of, 147

functions of, 146 , 148

maturation and release of, 151 -152

physiology of, 164 -165

study of, 146 -148, 158 , 160

Séguier, Pierre, chancellor of France, 17

Sevin, Pierre, mathematical instrument maker, 44

Shadwell, Thomas, playwright, 205

Signatures, theory of, ridiculed by Dodart, 97

Sloane, Sir Hans, and Tournefort, 328 -329 n.16

Société royale de la médecine, 196

Societies, learned and scientific, 27 , 28 -29, 34 , 156 , 199 , 205

communication between, 205

contacts between, 202

correspondence with, 203

private, 20 , 21 , 22 , 155 , 165 , 181 , 190 , 195 , 196 , 199 , 202 , 303 n.5

publications of in vernacular, 184 .

See also names of societies or sponsors

Soils, 147 , 150 , 151

Solomon, House of, 28 , 43 , 65 , 292 n.23

Solvents. See Alkahest; Chemical analysis, methods of

Sorbière, Samuel, 215

South, Robert, 205

Specimens of unusual plants and curiosities, 80 , 194 -195, 204 , 207

collected by Academy, 213

exchanged, 203

Spontaneous generation. See Generation

Sprat, Thomas, 215

Spurred rye. See Rye

Stubbe, Henry, 205

Superstition, 79 , 117 , 184

Surveying. See Instruments and apparatus; Versailles, water supply of

Sweden, and academicians, 202 , 209

Sympathy and antipathy, theories of, 119 , 120

T

Tardy, Claude, 127 -128

Tauvry, Daniel, 18 , 21 , 172 , 315 n.16

Taxidermy, 210 .

See also Colson

Technology. See Practical projects of Academy

Temperaments, theory of, ridiculed by Dodart, 97

Terrasson, abbé Jean Baptiste, tries to revive natural history of plants in 1709, 114

Teste-morte.See distillants

Theophrastus, 70 , 73 , 146

theories of challenged, 75

Thévenot, Melchisédech, 36 , 201 , 202 , 203

― 387 ―

associated with both Academy and Bibliothèque du roi, 39 , 51 , 285 n.4

role of in Academy, 182

as sponsor of scientific meetings, 196

Thuret, Isaac and Jacques, clockmakers, 43 , 44 , 193 , 317 n.1

Torricelli, Evangelista, 155

Torricellian void, 155 , 156

Tournefort, Joseph Pitton de, 18 , 23 , 25 , 58 , 184 , 194 , 201 , 202 , 209 , 214 , 215 , 222 , 225 , 300 n.40, 309 n.1, 328 -329 n.16, 331 n.61, 331 -332 n.63, 337 n.115

on anatomy and physiology of plants, 141 , 142 , 146 , 147 , 148 , 150 , 151 , 153 -154, 158 , 165

and Bourdelin, 90 , 94 , 111

career of, 20 , 107 , 172

and classification of plants, 59 , 75

as collector, 195

death of, 187

describes plants, 111 , 113

and Dodart, 103 , 111 , 113 -115

Élémens de botanique of, 58 , 80 , 113 , 222

expeditions of, 107 , 209

Histoire des plantes qui naissent aux environs de Paris of, 113 , 114 -115

and Jardin royal, 38 , 197 -198

and natural history of plants, 111 , 113 , 114 , 115

role of in Academy, 24 , 111 , 113 -115

Transpiration: in humans, 99

in plants, 141 , 164

Travel, 23 , 199 , 201 -202, 202 -203

books about for sale in Paris, 191

grand tour of continent, 198 , 200

inspires scientific inquiry, 20 , 22 -23, 58 , 59 , 212 -213.

See also Expeditions

Truchet, Jean, called père Sébastien, 195 , 196 , 293 n.25

Tschirnhaus, Ehrenfried Walther, count of, 36

Tuillier, father and son, physicians, 174 -175, 176 , [204]

U

Utility, 46 , 55 , 61 , 101 , 110 , 111 , 169 , 170 , 171 , 179 , 226

practice related to theory, 60 , 99 , 108 , 109 , 111 , 222 , 224 .

See also Ideals; Practical projects of Academy

V

Vacuum: abhorence of in nature, 140 -141

debate over, 154 , 159 -160, 166 , 335 n.101

experiments with puzzling, 161 , 162 , 163 , 164 .

See also Torricelli

Val, Mlle de, seller of maps and geographies, 192

Vallant, physician, 201

Varignon, Pierre, 36 , 55 , 190

Fellow of Royal Society, 202

teaches mathematics, 197

Varin, 295 n.4, 333 n.72

Vauban, Sébastien Le Prestre, seigneur de, 325 n.19

treatise by on fortifications for sale, 191

Vernacular. See Language

Vernon, Francis, 32 , 211 , 291 n.13, 334 n.81

Versailles, gardens of, 194

menagerie of, 194

menagerie of supplies animals for dissection, 39 , 54 , 59 , 194

water supply of, 21 , 32 , 50 , 55 , 56 , 156 , 169 , 210 , 337 n.112

Villette, instrument maker, 44

Vines, how they grip walls, 111

Vitruvius, 16 , 49

Void. See Torricelli; Vacuum

W

Wallis, John, 164

Water:desalination of, 108 , 109 , 332 n.67, 336 n.102

role of in growth of plants, 150 , 152

as ultimate source of matter, 152 .

See also Chemical analysis; Versailles, water supply of

Watercolors. See Illustrations; Gaston

Willughby, Francis, 200 , 214

Winds, studies of, 203

Wines. See Chemical analysis

Z

Zoology. See under Natural philosophical research of Academy

― 388 ―

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