1. Martin, Livre, 965; Brunot, Histoire, 6, 1: 406-17. [BACK]

2. Martin, Livre, 652-53, 964; Barber, Bourgeoisie;Fontenelle Éloges, 44. [BACK]

3. Histoire ... 1699, 3-11; JdS, 2: 387-92; AdS, Reg 4: 99r. [BACK]

4. Goubert, The Ancien Régime, 215; Auvray, "Affiches," 203; Cipolla, "The Professions." For definitions of académie and compagnie, see Berthelin, Abrégé du Dictionnaire de Trévoux; Académie française, Dictionnaire; Furetière, Dictionnaire; Bourdelot, Conversations, 12-13, 14-21; Dubois and Lagane, Dictionnaire de la langue française classique; Le Roy de la Corbinaye, Traité de l'orthographie; Quemada, Matériaux; Huguet, Petit glossaire; Godefroy, Dictionaire de l'ancienne langue française; Brunot, Histoire; Moréri, Dictionnaire; Sommer, Lexique de Madame de Sévigné, 13: 173-74; Livet, Lexique de Molière, 1: 438; compare OED. [BACK]

5. Huygens, Oeuvres, 5: 41; McKeon, "Lettre"; Sealy, Palace Academy; George, "Seventeenth Century Amateur," and "Genesis"; Fauré-Fremiet, "Les origines"; Evans, "Learned Societies"; Gauja, "Les origines"; Adams, "Social Responsibilities"; Yates, Academies, chap. 12; Hahn, Anatomy, 4-7; Bigourdan "Les premières réunions savantes"; Brown, Scientific Organizations; Ornstein, Rôle of Scientific Societies, 139-45; Taton, Origines. [BACK]

6. Ranum, Artisans of Glory, 19; Ch. Perrault, Mémoires, 44-46; Histoire ... 1720, 123; Paul, Science and Immortality. On false modesty, see La Bruyère, Caractères, 8: 42, 44. [BACK]

7. On Descartes and his influence, see Descartes, Discours, pt. 6; Salomon-Bayet, L'institution de la science, 101; Dubarle, "The Proper Place of Science," 405-7; Paul, Science and Immortality. Compare Yates, Academies, 307-8, who interprets Fontenelle's Entretiens within a sixteenth-century tradition. On Bacon and his influence, see AdS, Reg., 1: 22-38; Bacon, Works, 3: 156-57; Huygens, Oeuvres, 19: 268-70; see also his correspondence during the 1660s; Hahn, Anatomy, 11, 15; Purver, The Royal Society, pt. 1; Zilsel, "The Sociological Roots of science," 558; Olmsted, "Scientific Expedition," 127; Juillard, "Société Royale," 80-82. On medical utility, see Nicéron, Hommes illustres, 7: 102. [BACK]

8. Ultee, Abbey, 21-37. [BACK]

9. King, Science and Rationalism; Nef, Industry and Government, gives background; Huygens, Oeuvres, 6: 212; Ch. Perrault, Mémoires, 45-47; Martin, Livre, 860, 923; Delorme, "Correspondance de Chapelain." [BACK]

10. Colbert, Lettres, 5: 513. [BACK]

11. Cole, Colbert and Mercantilism, chap. 6; Couton, "Effort publicitaire"; Collas, Chapelain, 360; Colbert, Lettres, 5: 499, 514-15 [BACK]

12. Cole, Colbert and Mercantilism, 1: 349; see also 20-24, 346; Coleman Revisions in Mercantilism, 71, 196-97. [BACK]

13. Wilson, "Trade, Society and the State," 530; Heckscher, Mercantilism, 1: 24; Sée, Esquisse, 276; Aston, ed., Crisis; Coleman, ed., Revisions in Mercantilism. [BACK]

14. Colbert, Lettres, 5: 514; Roger, Sciences de la vie, 173. [BACK]

15. Colbert, Lettres, 5: 559. [BACK]

16. Collas, Chapelain, 386-87, 375. See also Colbert, Lettres, 5: 513, 535-36, 550-51; Cole, Colbert and Mercantilism, 1: 315-17. [BACK]

17. Collas, Chapelain, 355, 390-93. [BACK]

18. Colbert, Lettres, 5: 593-94. [BACK]

19. Ibid., 600-601, 603, 609. [BACK]

20. Ibid., 513, 514, 515; Collas, Chapelain, 369-75, 383-84, 387; Cole, Colbert and Mercantilism, 1: 24, 294-95; Huygens, Oeuvres, 7: 361, 8: 112, 196-99; Histoire ... 1699, 10-11. [BACK]

21. Sée, Esquisse, chaps. 6-8; Grassby, "Social Status"; Thirsk, Economic Policy and Projects; Braudel and Labrousse, Histoire économique, 2: 356-58; Cole, Colbert and Mercantilism, 1: 315, 454, 477, 2: 142-43, 147-48, 171, 180; Schaeper, Economy of France, 25-54. [BACK]

22. Hahn, Anatomy, 18-19; Caullery, "La biologie au XVIIe siècle," 33; Roger, Sciences de la vie, 173. [BACK]

23. Colbert, Lettres, 5: 403-4, 407-8, 514; Histoire, 1: 361-66; Huygens, Oeuvres, 4: 513-16; Stimson, Scientists and Amateurs, 16; Brown, Scientific Organizations, 76; Dubarle, "The Proper Place of Science"; Wolf, Observatoire, 3; Olmsted, "Scientific Expedition," 119. [BACK]

24. Colbert, Lettres, 5: 293, 314, 315-16, 334, 336, 351, 404n., 421-22; Sée, Esquisse, 289; Cole, Colbert and Mercantilism, 2: 124-25, 134. On plans to launch a scientific expedition when overseas headquarters for the East India Company were established, see Olmsted, "Scientific Expedition," 119. [BACK]

25. Oldenburg, Correspondence, 6: 502, 507; Saunders, Decline and Reform, 105-18. [BACK]

26. Grassby, "Social Status," 19-22. [BACK]

27. In its formative period, therefore, the institution combined functions performed in the modern era by research laboratories, universities, learned societies, scholarly publishers, and scientific consultants: Hagstrom, Scientific Community, 23, 26-27, 48; Pyenson, "'Who the Guys Were,"' 169. Academicians also refereed books and articles before publication, taking this function so seriously that an academician might blame his colleagues for insufficient vigilance when he published inaccurate claims: Huygens, Oeuvres, 7: 253, 255. [BACK]