1. Gasking, Investigations, 44; Delaporte, Second règne, 27-31. See for example [Aristotle], De Plantis, 1: 3, 818a17-20; 1: 2, 817a31-35; 1: 1, 816b11-23; Aristotle, Historia Animalium, 5: 1, 539a16-20; De Anima, 1: 5, 411b19-30; 2: 1, 412b1. Tournefort, Élémens de botanique, 21, 23, 515-26, 561; Grew, Anatomy Begun, 44-45, preface, and epistle dedicatory; Arber, "Nehemiah Grew," 47; Webster, "Recognition of Plant Sensitivity"; Davy de Virville, "De l'influence des idées préconçues," 114. [BACK]

2. Delaporte, Second règne, 31-32. [BACK]

3. Savants often continued to assume what they needed to prove: Davy de Virville, "De l'influence des idées préconçues," 115. [BACK]

4. For what academicians wrote about the circulation of sap, see chap. 9 n. 3, above. [BACK]

5. Hooke, Micrographia, 114, 116, 120; Gunther, Early Science in Oxford, 6: 337; Le Febvre, Compleat Body, pt. 2, 3-4; Histoire, 1: 3; Grew, Anatomy of Plants; Malpighi, Plantarum Anatome; Arber, "Grew and Malpighi." Régis, Système, 467-86, relied on Grew and Malpighi for the anatomy of plants and on Perrault for the circulation of sap. [BACK]

6. He exemplifies the "medical style" of explanation characterized by King, ed., Hoffmann, Fundamenta Medicinae, xx-xxi. He also represents a process discussed by Ginzburg in "Morelli, Freud," by which savants raid popular culture for their scientific conjectures. [BACK]

7. Bugler, "Précurseur," presents Mariotte as a precocious experimental genius. [BACK]

8. Harvey, Movement of the Heart and Blood, 58-59, chap. 15; Perrault, Circulation, 72-73, 82, 105-6, 110-11; AdS, Reg., 4: 80r. [BACK]

9. Harvey explained to Robert Morison why he could not accept Pecquet's theory that the lacteal veins were filled with chyle: The Circulation of the Blood, 193-200; cf. 129. Academicians were modified Harveians, and Mariotte disagreed with Harvey on the lacteal veins: "Il semble que comme les veines lactées qui sont dans le mesentere reçoivent le chyle et le portent dans les veines, d'ou il passe dans le Coeur, et du coeur dans les poumons, d'ou il est porté derechef dans le coeur et ensuitte dans les arteres pour servir a la nourriture de toutes les parties du corps, et le surplus repasse dans les veines qui le reportent au coeur." He compared the ends of roots with lacteal veins: "Vraysemblablement les extremitez des racines s'imbibent de l'humidité qui est dans la terre, et la portent dans le Corps de la racine, d'ou elle passe dans des petits Canaux qui sont dans la tige d'ou elle se distribue.... (AdS, Reg., 4: 79v). [BACK]

10. AdS, Reg., 4: 79v. The beginning of the quotation appears in n. 9, above; it continues: "... d'ou elle se distribue dans les branches et jusques auz extremitez des feüilles, & le surplus est reporté par d'autres petits canaux vers la Racine pour s'y perfectionner par une Espece de cohobation et devenir un sue bien digeré et propre a la nourriture des fleurs et des fruicts...." [BACK]

11. AdS, Reg., 4: 79v-80r; Perrault, Circulation, 77-80; Mémoires, 10: 194-95; Grew, Anatomy of Plants, 48-49; Dedu, De l'âme des plantes, 297-98. [BACK]

12. AdS, Reg., 4: 79r, 80r-v, 81v-83r, 85r-v; Mariotte, Végétation, 133-34; Perrault, Circulation, 81-82, 84-85, 87-96; Historia, 62-63. [BACK]

13. On the controversy with Duclos over the formation of dew, see AdS,Reg., 4: 83r-v, 89r-v; and Duclos's portion of Perrault's Circulation. Mariotte's and Perrault's views on the role of leaves: AdS, Reg., 4: 82r-83r, 85v-86r, 94r-v; Perrault, Circulation, 83-86, 91-93. [BACK]

14. Harvey, Movement of the Heart and Blood, 93; Perrault, Circulation, 85-86; Mariotte, Végétation, 133. [BACK]

15. Harvey, Movement of the Heart and Blood, 58-59. [BACK]

16. AdS, Reg., 4: 72v-74v, 79r, 80r-v, 85r-v; compare Duclos's report of his experiments, ibid., 87r-88r. The Academy later identified the two saps in an aloe as "suc crud" and "suc nourissier": BMHN MS. 451: 88r (6 May 1671). [BACK]

17. Perrault, Circulation, 77-78, 94-95, 105, 116, 119-20. See also AdS, Reg., 4: 89v-90r; 10: 95v (15 Apr. 1682); 12: 130r (23 Mar. 1689). [BACK]

18. Harvey, The Circulation of the Blood, 125; AdS, Reg., 4: 72r-75r, 85r-86r; Histoire, 1: 61 (Mariotte); Perrault, Circulation, 73-77. [BACK]

19. Mariotte, Végétation, 130-31. [BACK]

20. Perrault, Circulation, 74-77, 88-89, 93-94, 96-97. [BACK]

21. Mariotte, Végétation, 129-30. Delaporte, Second régne, 44, incorrectly interprets Mariotte as affirming their existence. [BACK]

22. For Hooke, see Gunther, Early Science in Oxford, 6: 337 (1668); for La Hire, see Histoire, 2: 183-86; Mémoires, 10: 317-19. [BACK]

23. Grew, Anatomy of Plants, 21. [BACK]

25. Hooke, Attempt, 1; Brown, Scientific Organizations, 85-86; cf. Boyle, Works, 1: 80. [BACK]

26. Partington, History of Chemistry, 2: 3, 505, 511; Middleton, History of the Barometer, 185; Huygens, Oeuvres, 22: 586-87, 3: 328-29. Locke heard capillary tubes discussed during his French visit: Travels, 101. [BACK]

27. Hooke, Attempt, 26. [BACK]

28. Hooke, Micrographia, 11, 20-21, 28. [BACK]

29. For the confusion, see Middleton, History of the Barometer, 186, citing Honoré Fabre and J. C. Sturm. See also Millington, "Theories of Cohesion" and "Studies in Capillarity," 258, 267-68, who cites Rohault, Bernoulli, and Huygens. On Borelli see Partington, History of Chemistry, 2: 444, and Millington, "Studies in Capillarity," 264. A brief review of Borelli's 1670 De motionibus naturalibus in Phil. Trans. 73 (1671): 2210, pointed out that Borelli argued against the fear of a vacuum and attraction; it also mentioned his discussion of capillary tubes. His views on these subjects thus reached a wide audience. [BACK]

30. Mariotte, Végétation, 130. It is not clear how La Hire explained capillary action, but by 1693 he stressed the mediocre heights to which capillary action could raise a liquid: AdS, Reg., 8: 218r-v (Apr. 1678-June 1679); Mémoires, 10: 317-19. While Perrault never cited the evidence of water rising in thin glass tubes, he did compare the absorption of liquids in a sponge with the rise of sap, as had Cesalpino a century earlier. Perrault, Circulation, 74-75. Cf. Malpighi and Ray; see Clark-Kennedy, Stephen Hales, 59-60; Guyénot, Évolution, 118. [BACK]

31. AdS, Reg., 4: 74v-76v. [BACK]

32. Pierre Perrault, Origine des fontaines; the preface was reprinted in Huygens, Oeuvres, 7: 287-97; quotation from p. 296. [BACK]

33. Perrault, Circulation, 76-77, 113, 124. Régis, Cours, 1: 485-86, 491-92, had similar views. Compare Savery's pulsometer of 1698: Burstall, Mechanical Engineering, 193. For fermentation in Descartes's circulatory theory, see his Discours, pt. 5. Grew had a similar theory of the rise of sap: Anatomy Begun and Anatomy of Roots in Anatomy of Plants, 17-18, 22-26, 82-83; Arber, "Nehemiah Grew," 58. [BACK]

34. Mariotte, Traité des couleurs in Oeuvres, 311, first published in his Essais de physique. Duclos misunderstood air pressure. In 1680 he adopted the theory that sap circulated but ascribed an "expulsive faculty" to the branches and trunks of trees in order to explain how sap rose. He rejected air pressure as a cause, arguing that the weight of the air was too weak to force sap upwards in trees since it could not prevent a delicate plant from growing straight and tall. Duclos based his view on Huygens's experiment in which plants grew in a tightly stopped bottle, but he revived a discredited assumption (once used by critics of Torricelli and Pascal), even though by the 1670s it had been shown that the air pressure in a sealed container was the same as that of the atmosphere in which it had been sealed, unless the container had been evacuated by a pump. Boyle showed that "air in a bell jar on a plate can be at atmospheric pressure, even though the glass keeps the air above from pressing on that within" (Middleton, History of the Barometer, 66). Perrault refuted Duclos simply: "the enclosed air acts with the same force to create pressure as it does when it communicates with the other air." This was because it "acts according to the strength of its spring, which is proportional to the weight of the air that it had when it was enclosed." For Perrault this was proven by experiments with carps' bladders in an evacuated bell jar. He argued further that the air enclosed in soil was no different from the air in a sealed container and could therefore exert pressure on juices in the earth and on the roots of plants. See Perrault, Circulation, 109, 113-14, 119; Dedu, De l'âme des plantes, 284-85, repeated Duclos's error. [BACK]

35. Clark-Kennedy, Stephen Hales, 60-66. [BACK]

36. Mßmoires, 10: 191. [BACK]

37. Histoire, 2: 185; Justel wrote to Huet in 1671 about Borelli's book and about the difficulties of explaining capillarity: BN MS. fr. 15189: 160r. [BACK]

38. AdS, Reg., 13: 39r (15 Nov. 1690); Mémoires, 10: 317-19; Histoire, 2: 184-85. [BACK]

39. These were said to be connected by their lower parts to tubes which carried rising sap, and to be attached by their upper parts to tubes that transported descending sap. La Hire claimed to have observed very large valves of this sort in canes and reeds: Histoire, 2: 185-86. [BACK]

40. Canguilhem, Connaissance de la vie, 34. [BACK]

41. Canguilhem, "Role of Analogies and Models," 519, 517. [BACK]

42. Ibid., 517. [BACK]

43. As Delaporte points out in Second règne, 11. [BACK]