1. Ninth grade religious studies textbook, 1988–89, p. 181. [BACK]

2. Eighth grade religious studies textbook, 1987–88, p. 140. [BACK]

3. Eighth grade religious studies textbook, 1987–88, pp. 198–99. [BACK]

4. Bowring, “Report on Egypt and Candia,” p. 5. [BACK]

5. For the Yemeni understanding of maturation, see Messick, The Calligraphic State, pp. 77–84; for rural Egypt, see Ammar, Growing Up in an Egyptian Village, pp. 125–26. [BACK]

6. Samia ‘Abd al-Rahman, interview, 26 July 1989, pp. 521–26. [BACK]

7. For an exemplary treatment of this theme, see Anna Tsing, In the Realm of the Diamond Queen (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993). [BACK]

8. Eighth grade religious studies textbook, 1987–88, p. 166. [BACK]

9. Diane Singerman, Avenues of Participation: Family Politics and Networks in Urban Quarters of Cairo (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995). [BACK]

10. Twelfth grade religious studies textbook, 1989–90, pp. 44–45. [BACK]

11. Ninth grade religious studies textbook, 1988–89, p. 97. An explanation of the mahram had been provided in the ninth grade in the context of the Pilgrimage. [BACK]

12. Singerman, Avenues of Participation, pp. 85–94. [BACK]

13. Twelfth grade religious studies textbook, 1989–90, pp. 51–55. [BACK]

14. Dr. ‘Abd al-Subur Shahin, al-Akhbar, 1 July 1989, p. 8. [BACK]

15. L. Abu-Lughod, “Finding a Place for Islam.” [BACK]

16. Wadi‘ Thaluth Luqa, al-Ahram, 17 October 1988, p. 7. Significantly, the writer is a Copt, not a Muslim, indicating how widespread is the horror—and the attraction—of these shows. [BACK]

17. Al-Jumhuriyya, 13 September 1989, p. 5. [BACK]

18. Al-Ahram, 6 February 1989, p. 3. [BACK]

19. Al-Ahram, 9 June 1989, p. 13. [BACK]

20. Al-Nur, 12 September 1989, p. 3. [BACK]

21. The term is from R. Laurence Moore's analysis of religious publishing in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century America in his Selling God: American Religion in the Marketplace of Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994). [BACK]

22. Moore, Selling God, p. 22. [BACK]

23. This Qur’an commentary was banned in Egypt. [BACK]

24. Samia ‘Abd al-Rahman, interview, 24 July 1989, p. 522. [BACK]

25. Alexander Flores, “Egypt: A New Secularism?” Middle East Report, no. 153 (July–August 1988), p. 27. [BACK]

27. Muhammad Sulayman, interview, 7 August 1989, pp. 559–60. [BACK]

28. Seventh grade religious studies textbook, 1986–87, p. 40. [BACK]

29. Seventh grade religious studies textbook, 1986–87, pp. 40, 83, 87–88, 156. [BACK]

30. Seventh grade religious studies textbook, 1986–87, p. 158. [BACK]

31. Eighth grade religious studies textbook, 1987–88, p. 133. [BACK]

32. Eighth grade religious studies textbook, 1987–88, p. 133. [BACK]

33. Eighth grade religious studies textbook, 1987–88, p. 48. [BACK]

34. Eighth grade religious studies textbook, 1987–88, p. 205. [BACK]

35. Eighth grade religious studies textbook, 1987–88, p. 205. [BACK]

36. Eighth grade religious studies textbook, 1987–88, p. 188. For a similar example from another “new nation,” see Robert J. Foster, “Take Care of Public Telephones: Moral Education and Nation-State Formation in Papua New Guinea,” Public Culture 4 (1992), pp. 31–45. [BACK]

37. Meriem Verges, “ “I Am Living in a Foreign Country Here”: A Conversation with an Algerian “Hittiste,” ” Middle East Report, no. 192 (January–February 1995), pp. 14–17. [BACK]

38. L. Abu-Lughod, Writing Women's Worlds, pp. 236–37; “Finding a Place for Islam,” p. 495. [BACK]

39. Evelyn A. Early, Baladi Women of Cairo: Playing with an Egg and a Stone (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Reinner Publishers, 1993), pp. 46, 118, 121–25. [BACK]

40. Muhammad Sulayman, interview, 4 August 1989, 552–53. [BACK]

41. Samia Mustafa al-Khashab, Al-Shabab wa al-tayyar al-islami fi al-mujtama‘ al-Misri al-mu‘asir: Dirasa ijtima‘iyya midaniyya (Cairo: Dar al-thaqafa al-‘arabiyya, 1988), p. 77. [BACK]

42. Al-Khashab, Al-Shabab, pp. 136–37. [BACK]

43. Al-Khashab, Al-Shabab, p. 80. [BACK]

44. Al-Khashab, Al-Shabab, pp. 104–5. [BACK]

45. Al-Khashab, Al-Shabab, pp. 116–17. Interestingly, most of their knowledge of these groups came from specialized religious books and general-interest newspapers and magazines: 16.9 percent had gotten their information on Islamic groups from classmates who were members; 28.2 percent from religious meetings; 59.6 percent from specialized religious books; and 52 percent from the press (p. 123). [BACK]

46. Al-Khashab, Al-Shabab, p. 118. [BACK]

47. Ninth grade religious studies textbook, 1988–89, pp. 3–4. [BACK]

48. Al-Ahram, 2 April 1991, p. 5. [BACK]

49. Ninth grade religious studies textbook, 1988–89, p. 189. [BACK]

50. Ninth grade religious studies textbook, 1988–89, p. 188. [BACK]

51. Ninth grade religious studies textbook, 1988–89, p. 189. [BACK]

52. Ninth grade religious studies textbook, 1988–89, p. 191. [BACK]

53. Al-Akhbar, 27 July 1993, p. 7. [BACK]

54. For a good review of the social origins of prominent Muslim political activists, see Valerie Hoffman, “Muslim Fundamentalists: Psychosocial Profiles,” in Fundamentalisms Comprehended, vol. 5 of The Fundamentalisms Project, ed. Marty and Appleby (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), pp. 199–230. [BACK]

55. Al-Tasawwuf al-islami 11, 4 (Ramadan 1409 [April 1989]), pp. 18–19. [BACK]

56. Al-Tasawwuf al-islami 11, 4 (Ramadan 1409 [April 1989]), pp. 18–19. [BACK]

57. Tenth grade religious studies textbook, 1986–87, p. 38. [BACK]

58. Tenth grade religious studies textbook, 1986–87, p. 83. [BACK]

59. Tenth grade religious studies textbook, 1986–87, p. 84. [BACK]

60. Twelfth grade religious studies textbook, 1989–90, p. 78. [BACK]

61. Twelfth grade religious studies textbook, 1989–90, p. 78. [BACK]

62. Twelfth grade religious studies textbook, 1989–90, pp. 130–31. [BACK]

63. Pierre Bourdieu, “Authorized Language: The Social Conditions of the Effectiveness of Ritual Discourse,” in Language and Symbolic Power (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991), pp. 109–11. [BACK]

64. Singerman, Avenues of Participation, p. 164. [BACK]

65. Layla al-Shamsi, interview, 24 September 1989, p. 656. [BACK]

66. Layla al-Shamsi, interview, 24 September 1989, p. 658. [BACK]

67. Layla al-Shamsi, interview, 9 August 1989, pp. 574–77. [BACK]

68. Layla al-Shamsi, interview, 9 August 1989, pp. 574–77. [BACK]

69. Layla al-Shamsi, interview, 24 September 1989, p. 655. [BACK]

70. In a literal as well as a figurative sense, it turns out. In May 1996 the Egyptian Constitutional Court upheld a 1994 decree by the minister of education banning girls from wearing the face-covering niqab to school. [BACK]

71. Foucault, Discipline and Punish, pp. 186, 184. [BACK]

72. Al-Nur, 16 August 1989, p. 3. [BACK]

73. Al-Nur, 16 August 1989, p. 3. [BACK]

74. Dr. Fathi Yusuf Mubarak, Professor of Curriculum and Teaching Methodology at the College of Education, ‘Ain Shams, quoted in al-Ahali, 23 May 1989, p. 10. [BACK]

75. Dr. Hasan Shahata, assistant professor of education at the University of ‘Ain Shams, quoted in al-Ahali, 23 May 1989, p. 10. [BACK]

76. Al-Akhbar, 12 June 1989, p. 1. [BACK]

77. Al-Nur, 16 August 1989, p. 3. [BACK]

78. Al-Ahram, 5 August 1989, p. 8. [BACK]

79. Al-Wafd, 10 July 1989, p. 2. [BACK]

80. Al-Ahram, 10 July 1989, p. 8; 7 July 1989, p. 6. [BACK]

81. Al-Wafd, 31 March 1989, p. 6. [BACK]

82. Al-Ahram, 28 March 1989, p. 8. [BACK]

83. Al-Ahram, 8 March 1989, p. 8. [BACK]

84. Al-Ahram, 17 April 1989, p. 8. [BACK]

85. Al-Ahram, 27 April 1989, p. 8. [BACK]

86. Al-Jumhuriyya, 16 September 1989, p. 7. [BACK]

87. Al-Akhbar, 31 July 1989, p. 6. “The Minister of Waqfs said that flight from the domains of work and production are destructive to society.” Al-Ahram, 2 September 1989, p. 8. [BACK]

88. Al-Ahram, 22 July 1989, p. 9. [BACK]

89. Al-Ahram, 2 April 1991, p. 5. [BACK]

90. Al-Akhbar, 25 August 1989, p. 3. [BACK]

91. Al-Ahram, 2 September 1989, p. 8. [BACK]

92. Al-Ahram, 25 August 1989, p. 8. [BACK]

93. Al-Ahram, 5 August 1989, p. 8. [BACK]

94. Al-Akhbar, 25 August 1989, p. 3. [BACK]

95. Al-Akhbar, 21 July 1989, p. 6. [BACK]

96. Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition, p. 14. [BACK]

97. Bourdieu and Passeron, Reproduction in Education, p. 41. [BACK]

98. Bourdieu and Passeron, Reproduction in Education, pp. 41–42. [BACK]

99. Pierre Bourdieu, The Field of Cultural Production: Essays in Art & Literature (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), p. 115. [BACK]

100. Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition, pp. 52–53. [BACK]

101. Williams, Sociology of Culture, pp. 106–7. [BACK]

102. Bourdieu, Field of Cultural Production, p. 42. [BACK]

103. Bourdieu, Field of Cultural Production, pp. 83–84. [BACK]