1. Available information on slaves' lives within monasteries is sparse, despite this statistic on the slave population there, and none of our cases refer to it. Here is a topic for future work. [BACK]

2. Colonial and, later on, republican authorities and census-takers counted "house entrances" to evaluate population density and exact taxes. Often one "entrance" was used only by slaves. [BACK]

3. Much debate surrounds the Atlantic trade, and the percentages noted depend on several variables, such as a voyage's size and date, the identity of the trader, and origin and condition of the slaves on departure. See Reynolds ( 1985, esp. 28-56) for a recent synthesis. [BACK]

4. Toplin describes this determinate duality (1981, xxiii): "A heritage of color prejudice was passed down, and so, too, was a tradition of economic inequality." [BACK]

5. Stevenson (1829, 1:304-306). Contemporaries spelled the names of tribal groups such as the Mondongos in various ways: from Stevenson's spelling, "Mandingos," and his burlesque tone, we might infer that he (or the scribe) had little interest in the matter. [BACK]

6. AGN, Cabildo, CCI, L 23, C 380, 1812, Autos seguidos por María Santos Puente contra Miguel Valdivieso y Manuela Quirigallo sobre que se le nombre reina de la Nación de los Congos Mondongos o se le restituya el dinero gastado. [BACK]

7. AGN, CS, CCI, L 717, 1859. [BACK]

8. On this case see AGN, RA, CCI, L 138, C 1684, 1817. For other significant examples of the nearly infinite civil suits about this topic, see AGN, AGG, CP, L 5, C 113, 1812, Autos seguidos por Ma. Rosa Manrique de Lara (negra libre), ama de Ma. Josefa Murga, su esclava contra el sargento N. pulpero de la calle Guadalupe por ser arno de María Dolores su esclava, por maltratos en agravio de la esclava María Josefa Murga; AGN, RA, CCR, L 94, C 1155, 1801, Angela Andrade; AGN, AGG, CP, L 5, C 116, 1813, Autos criminales seguidos por Da. Ma. Encarnación Valverde (parda), contra Pascual Baylón Frias, por maltratos y contuciones en su agravio cometido en su propio domicilio a donde entró violentamente. [BACK]

9. AA, Estadística 1809. [BACK]

10. In this special case the state was the owner; I therefore omit it from subsequent calculations. [BACK]

11. ADLL, CO, Expediente 165, L 301, 1790. See also AA, Particulares, L 2 (1840-1922), Carta de Gregoria Goyburu al Arzobispo. As early as the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Bowser (1977, 147) notes, the receipt of daily wages from one slave could represent the difference between a poor owner's comfort or ruin. [BACK]

12. AGN, AGG, CCI, L 21, C 368, Baraona contra Chacón, 1817. Chapter 5 amply documents the reasons behind the Defensor's perception. [BACK]

13. ADLL, CO, L 301, Expediente 165, 1790; and AGN, RA, CCI, L 32, C 352, 1803, Autos seguidos por Petronila Sánchez, samba libre, contra Da. Lugarda Márquez, sobre la libertad de su hijo José Andrés. [BACK]

14. AGN, Notarios, Protocolo 881, fs. 573. [BACK]

15. AGN, AGG, CCI, L 21, C 368, 1817, Baraona contra Chacón. [BACK]

16. In the city as on haciendas, owners' wills might include a grant of freedom (total or conditional), and the higher population density made both wills and the notaries to ease their redaction more common. Although life was rather precarious and life expectancy very low, at times an ailing owner would get better and a slave's expectations of freedom would die. See for example, AGN, AGG, CCI, L 23, C 413, Encarnación Albarito, pardalibre, y Bravo Pando, contra la mujer legítima del Mariscal de Campo D. Manuel Gonzáles, sobre la liberación de sus dos hijos Micaela y María Urbana, esclavos mediante la venta por tasación de sus respectivos precios, 1819. [BACK]

17. AA, CN, L 36 (1817), Fr. Jose Aravjo ae Artobispo. [BACK]

18. AA, CN, L 35, 1804, Herrera contra Valenzuela. [BACK]

19. AGN, RA, CCI, L 103, C 1093, Rioja contra Rioja, 1811. [BACK]

20. AGN, Cabildo, CCI, L 19, C 324, 1801, Autos seguidos por Luciana Josefa, esclava de D. Paula Almogera, sobre su libertad. [BACK]

21. AA, LM, L 7 (1800-1809), 1806, Palacios contra Teruz. [BACK]

22. This sum of 12 pesos equaled the allowance that husbands furnished during the divorce process to wives who were relocated to beaterios . See chapter 4. [BACK]

23. Luciana—assuming she was born in 1753—had her first child at the age of eighteen in 1771. When she filed her case in 1810, the noted thirty-nine years had elapsed. In Catalina's case, her wedding in 1791 began the day-labor process of accumulation of fifteen years that ended with the filing of the suit in 1806; we must assume that her price and that of her husband came to 600 pesos. [BACK]

24. AGN, RA, CCI, L 132, C 1345, Breña contra Iturrizo, 1815. [BACK]

25. ADP, JC, Intendencia, CCI, L 307, C 317, 1793, Autos que sigue Mathias Sánchez, negra contra Da. Ursula Sánchez, sobre la venta de una samba, hija de dha. negra que disc ser nula. [BACK]

26. See for example AGN, CS, CCI, L 569, 1854, Vicenta Arzola, liberta con Melchora Barrera, morena libre, sobre la entrega de su menor hija Paula Saldonado, San Lázaro. This case is particularly interesting because it pitted a day laboring black liberta against a master who was a free morena , and because the new owner intervened on behalf of the liberta . [BACK]

27. AGN, CS, Juzgado Eclesiástico, RPJ 483 (1825-1836), Causa que por via de fuerza promovió la Madre Sor Isabel del Espíritu Santo y Paters, religiosa en el monasterio de Santa Clara de Lima contra el Señor Coronel Manuel Porras, a hombre de su madre D. Brigida Santoyo, sobre el recojo de una muchacha nombrada María Isabel, hija de Simón Alvarez y de Juana Porras, esclava de la última de aquella, que se halla en dicho convento y a quien pretende hacer esclava. [BACK]

28. AGN, RA, CCI, L 20, C 213, Pérez y Herrera contra Vidal Bravo, 1802. [BACK]

29. AGN, RA, CCI, L 159, C 1645, 1819, Da. N. Echenique contra N. Andrea Barrera, su esclava, sobre la esclavitud de los hijos de ésta última. [BACK]

30. AA, CN, L 35 (1799-1814), 1799, Isabel Sanchez y Baca. [BACK]

31. AGN, CS, CCI, L 278, 1841, Defensor General de Menores contra Da. Rosa Moreno por querer reducir a servidumbre a Rafael de 17 años, hijo de una esclava suya. [BACK]

32. AGN, EJ, CCI, 1840, Seguido por el Defensor de Menores con representación de María del Milagro Solórzano sobre libertad de su hija Micaela Bartola con la Señora Da. Juana Murga. [BACK]

33. AGN, RA, CCI, L 32, C 352, Petronila Sánchez, samba libre contra Da. Lugarda Márquez sobre la libertad de su hijo José Andrés, 1803. [BACK]

34. AGN, CS, CCI, L 261, 1840, Marcos Esquivel contra Da. Isabel Espinoza sobre que no venda a sus hijas y sobre el Patronato de las mismas. A similar case is AGN, EJ, L 252, 1840, Francisca Solano Palacios contra su ama Da. Manuela Marino. [BACK]

35. AGN, RA, CCR, L 125, C 1527, Expediente promovido en la vía penal, con el fin de poder esclarecer sobre el suicidio del negro bozal nombrado Antonio, esclavo de D. Ignacio Meléndez a quien se le encontró ahorcado en un árbol de la Alameda del Pino, 1812. On the conditions slaves experienced in the San Bartolomé and San Lázaro hospitals, see Mendieta Ocampo (1990, 20-25, 57-64). [BACK]