1. For two illuminating studies dealing with the theoretical and cultural context of medieval vernacular translations, see Rita Copeland, Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation in the Middle Ages: Academic Traditions and Vernacular Texts (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and Ruth Morse, Truth and Convention in the Middle Ages: Rhetoric, Representation, and Reality (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991). [BACK]

2. Gabrielle M. Spiegel, The Chronicle Tradition of Saint-Denis: A Survey (Brookline, Mass.: Classical Folia Editions, 1978), 72-75. [BACK]

3. Marie-Thérèse d'Alverny, "Translations and Translators," in Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century , ed. Robert L. Benson and Giles Constable (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982), 421-61; Gordon Leff, Paris and Oxford Universities in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1968); Ethiques , 3. [BACK]

4. For an excellent account of this process, see Serge Lusignan, Parler vulgairement: Les intellectuels et la langue française au XIIIe et XIVe siècles , 2d ed. (Paris: J. Vrin, 1987). See also Morse, Truth and Convention , 215. [BACK]

5. Politiques , 27; Morse, Truth and Convention , 215-16. [BACK]

6. Pearl Kibre, "Intellectual Interests Reflected in the Libraries of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries," Journal of the History of Ideas 7/3 (1946): 257, n. 2; Paul Saenger, "Silent Reading: Its Impact on Late Medieval Script and Society," Viator 13 (1982): 403-6; Malcolm B. Parkes, "The Literacy of the Laity," in The Medieval World , ed. David Daiches and Anthony Thorlby (London: Aldus Books, 1973), 555-57. [BACK]

7. Spiegel, Chronicle Tradition , 74-76. For further discussion, see idem, Romancing the Past: The Rise of Historiography in Thirteenth-Century France (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993).

8. Ibid., 76; see also Anne D. Hedeman, The Royal Image: The Illustrations of the "Grandes Chroniques de France," 1274-1422 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991), intro. and Ch. 1. [BACK]

7. Spiegel, Chronicle Tradition , 74-76. For further discussion, see idem, Romancing the Past: The Rise of Historiography in Thirteenth-Century France (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993).

8. Ibid., 76; see also Anne D. Hedeman, The Royal Image: The Illustrations of the "Grandes Chroniques de France," 1274-1422 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991), intro. and Ch. 1. [BACK]

9. Saenger, "Silent Reading," 406. See below, Ch. 3. break [BACK]

10. Lusignan, Parler vulgairement , 138-39. [BACK]

11. Wilhelm Berges, Die Fürstenspiegel des hohen und späten Mittelalters: Schriften des Reichsinstituts für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde , Monumenta germaniae historica, 2 (Leipzig: Verlag Karl W. Hiersemann, 1938), 320-22; Dora M. Bell, L'idéal éthique de la royauté en France au moyen âge (Geneva: Droz, 1962), 52. For Jean de Meun's translation of the Consolatio and its revealing dedication to Philip IV, see Copeland, Rhetoric, Hermeneutics, and Translation , 133-36, and Morse, Truth and Convention , 218-19. [BACK]

12. François Avril, "Manuscrits," in Les fastes du gothique: Le siècle de Charles V , exh. cat. (Paris: Editions de la Réunion des Musées Nationaux, 1981), 279. For a discussion of specific patrons and texts, see Léopold Delisle, "Le livre royal de Jean de Chavenges: Notice sur un manuscrit du Musée Condé," BiblEC 62 (1901): 328-31. [BACK]

13. Léopold Delisle, Le cabinet des manuscrits de la Bibliothèque Impériale (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1868), vol. 1, 17; Avril, "Manuscrits," 279. [BACK]

14. For this sumptuously illustrated volume, see Avril, "Manuscrits," 325-26. [BACK]

15. Delisle, Recherches , vol. 1, 331. [BACK]

16. Jacques Monfrin, "Humanisme et traductions au moyen âge," Journal des savants (1963): 171-72; idem, "La traduction française de Tite-Live," Histoire littéraire de la France 39 (1962): 363-71; and Giuseppe Billanovich, "Petrarch and the Textual Tradition of Livy," JWCI 14 (1951): 137-208. For a discussion of the manuscript closest to Bersuire's original, as well as to the translator's manuscript, see Marie-Hélène Tesnière, "Le livre IX des Décades de Tite-Live traduites par Pierre Bersuire, suivi du commentaire de Nicolas Trevet, édition critique," Position des thèses (Paris: Ecole Nationale des Chartes, 1977), 144-45. [BACK]

17. For an account of this meeting, see Delachenal, Histoire de Charles V , vol. 2, 270-72. For Charles V's commission of a French translation of Petrarch's Latin work, De remediis utriusque fortunae , see below at n. 66. [BACK]

18. Monfrin, "La traduction française de Tite-Live," 363.

19. Ibid., 359. For the whole prologue, see ibid., 359-61. [BACK]

18. Monfrin, "La traduction française de Tite-Live," 363.

19. Ibid., 359. For the whole prologue, see ibid., 359-61. [BACK]

20. See below at nn. 49-53. [BACK]

21. Many of the Incidens derive from Nicholas Trevet's commentaries on Livy's first and third Decades. See Monfrin, "La traduction française de Tite-Live," 371 and 379. For a breakdown of the Incidens , see Keith V. Sinclair, The Melbourne Livy: A Study of Bersuire's Translation Based on the Manuscript in the Collection of the National Gallery of Victoria (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1961), 25-28. [BACK]

22. For sample entries and the entire word list, see Monfrin, "La traduction française de Tite-Live," 383-86. break

23. Sinclair, Melbourne Livy , 31; for further details about Bersuire's methods of translation, see ibid., 32-36. [BACK]

22. For sample entries and the entire word list, see Monfrin, "La traduction française de Tite-Live," 383-86. break

23. Sinclair, Melbourne Livy , 31; for further details about Bersuire's methods of translation, see ibid., 32-36. [BACK]

24. Saenger, "Silent Reading," 406. [BACK]

25. For examples, see Georges Tessier, Diplomatique royale française (Paris: Ricard, 1962), 305. This source is cited by Saenger, "Silent Reading," 406. [BACK]

26. See Michael T. Clanchy, From Memory to Written Record: England, 1066-1377 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979), 201. This work is cited by Franz H. Bäuml, "Varieties and Consequences of Medieval Literacy and Illiteracy," Speculum 55/2 (1980): 244, n. 19. See also Michael T. Clanchy, "Looking Back from the Invention of Printing," in Literacy in Historical Perspective , ed. Daniel P. Resnick (Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1983), 16-19. [BACK]

27. For discussion of this evidence, see Sherman, "Some Visual Definitions," 321; Lusignan, Parler vulgairement , 149-50.

28. For examples, see Bersuire's explanation in Monfrin, "La traduction française de Tite-Live," 360. Among the translators working for Charles V, see Denis Foulechat's complaints in the prologue to his French version of the Policraticus of John of Salisbury (Delisle, Recherches , vol. 1, 89); for similar sentiments voiced by Simon de Hesdin, translator of Valerius Maximus, see ibid., vol. 1, 115. [BACK]

27. For discussion of this evidence, see Sherman, "Some Visual Definitions," 321; Lusignan, Parler vulgairement , 149-50.

28. For examples, see Bersuire's explanation in Monfrin, "La traduction française de Tite-Live," 360. Among the translators working for Charles V, see Denis Foulechat's complaints in the prologue to his French version of the Policraticus of John of Salisbury (Delisle, Recherches , vol. 1, 89); for similar sentiments voiced by Simon de Hesdin, translator of Valerius Maximus, see ibid., vol. 1, 115. [BACK]

29. Babbitt, Oresme's Livre de Politiques , 39, nn. 27 and 29. Babbitt cites Peter S. Lewis, Later Medieval France: The Polity (London: Macmillan, 1968), 65-66; and Bernard Guenée, "Etat et nation en France au moyen âge," Revue historique 481 (1967): 17-30. [BACK]

31. Le songe du vergier , ed. Marion Schnerb-Lièvre (Paris: Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1982), vol. 1, 6-7. See also Donal Byrne, "Rex imago Dei : Charles V of France and the Livre des propriétés des choses," Journal of Medieval History 7 (1981): 100-101. [BACK]

32. Ethiques , 99-100; for the Quadripartit and Du ciel et du monde prologues, see above, n. 30. [BACK]

33. Politiques , 27. For a similar expression of these sentiments, see Ethiques , 101. [BACK]

34. Jacques Monfrin, "Les traducteurs et leur publique en France au moyen âge," Journal des savants (1964): 5-20. break [BACK]

35. See Patrick M. de Winter, "Copistes, éditeurs, et enlumineurs de la fin du XIVe siècle: La production à Paris de manuscrits à miniatures," Actes du 100e Congrès National des Sociétés Savantes (Paris: Bibliothèque Nationale, 1978), 173-74. For a summary of the recent literature, see Hedeman, Royal Image , 305, n. 1. [BACK]

36. For a recent discussion of these points, see Lusignan, Parler vulgairement , 134-35. [BACK]

37. Charles V's own intervention in the compilation and illustration of this text seems certain. Among the major themes is the incorporation of the king's speech during the visit of his uncle the Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV justifying the resumption of the war against the English. See Anne D. Hedeman, "Valois Legitimacy: Editorial Changes in Charles V's Grandes chroniques de France," AB , 66/1 (1984): 101-3. [BACK]

38. Delachenal, "Note sur un manuscrit," 38. [BACK]

39. Fais et bonnes meurs , vol. 2, 43. [BACK]

40. Cited by Delisle, Recherches , vol. 1, 83-84. A modern edition of this work was published by Robert Püschel (Berlin: Damköhler and Paris: Le Soudier, 1881; Geneva: Slatkine Reprints, 1974). [BACK]

41. Paris, Bibl. Nat., MS fr. 22912-13, fol. 4v. For a printed edition of the prologue, see Alexandre de Laborde, Les manuscrits à peintures de la Cité de Dieu de Saint Augustin (Paris: Edouard Rahir, Libraire pour la Société des Bibliophiles François, 1909), vol. 1, 63-67. See also Morse, Truth and Convention , 226. [BACK]

42. Delisle, Recherches , vol. 1, 84.

43. Ibid., vol. 1, 89-90. [BACK]

42. Delisle, Recherches , vol. 1, 84.

43. Ibid., vol. 1, 89-90. [BACK]

44. For a discussion of this and other astrological manuscripts, see below, Ch. 2. [BACK]

45. Paris, Bibl. de l'Arsenal, MS 2247. The vernacular versions of these writings were ordered by an unknown woman, who gave the volume to Charles V. A tiny miniature at the beginning of the book depicts a king (probably a conventional portrait of Charles) accepting the manuscript. [BACK]

46. See below, Ch. 3 at nn. 76-79. [BACK]

47. For the complex textual history of the Economics , see Menut's summary in the introduction to Oresme, Yconomique , 786-88. For full discussions of the dating of Oresme's translations of the Ethics and the Politics , see above, Appendixes I-IV. [BACK]

48. In his critical edition of this text, Richard A. Jackson leaves open the question whether Golein's work is a translation ("The Traité du sacre of Jean Golein," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 113/4 (1969): 307, n. 15). In his recent work, Vive le roi!: A History of the French Coronation Ceremony from Charles V to Charles X (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), Jackson includes the Traité among the group of medie- soft

val coronation texts collected in Appendix B (222-23). Jackson notes that the "structural framework of the piece" is based on manuscripts containing texts of two coronation orders. The Traité also includes much original material, as is often the case with medieval translations. [BACK]

49. Fais et bonnes meurs , vol. 2, 47-49. [BACK]

50. For the background of the translatio studii theme, see Lusignan, Parler vulgairement , 158-62. For a convenient summary of these ideas, see A. G. Jongkees, "Translatio studii : Les avatars d'un thème médiéval," in Miscellanea mediaevalia in memoriam Jan Frederik Niermeyer (Groningen: J. B. Wolters, 1967), 41-51. Jongkees cites the classic study of Werner Goez, Translatio imperii: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Geschichtsdenkens und der politischen Theorien im Mittelalter und in der frühen Neuzeit (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1958), esp. 278-81. See also David Gassman, "Translatio studii : A Study of Intellectual History in the Thirteenth Century" (Ph.D. diss., Cornell University, 1973). [BACK]

51. Sandra L. Hindman and Gabrielle M. Spiegel, "The Fleur-de-lis Frontispieces to Guillaume de Nangis's Chronique abrégée : Political Iconography in Late Fifteenth-Century France," Viator 12 (1981): 387-89. See also William M. Hinkle, The Fleurs-de-lis of the Kings of France, 1285-1499 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1991). [BACK]

52. For Lusignan's important discussion, see Parler vulgairement , 154-58. See also idem, "La topique de la Translatio studii et les traductions françaises de textes savants au XIVe siècle," in Traduction et traducteurs au moyen âge , Colloque international du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 26-28 May 1986 (Paris: Editions du Centre, 1989), 303-15. [BACK]

53. Ethiques , 101; Lusignan, Parler vulgairement , 157. [BACK]

54. A passage of Raoul de Presles's prologue to his translation of the City of God states that Charles V followed the example of Charlemagne, who, among all the books that he studied, read with special devotion the works of St. Augustine, particularly the volume in question (de Laborde, Les manuscrits à peintures de la Cité de Dieu , vol. 1, 66). Denis Foulechat's preface to his French version of the Policraticus refers to Charlemagne as sovereign emperor and most Christian king of France, as well as a student of the liberal arts devoted to Scripture and the City of God (Paris, Bibl. Nat., MS fr. 24287, fol. 4). [BACK]

55. Paris, Bibl. Nat., MS fr. 437, fol. 2v; cited by Delisle, Recherches , vol. 1, 99, n. 1. [BACK]

56. Paris, Bibl. Nat., MS fr. 437, fol. 43, cited by Franco Simone, "Il Petrarca e la cultura francese del suo tempo," Studi francesi 42 (1970): 403. Golein boldly uses the myth that the realm of France had returned to the heirs of Charlemagne through the maternal and paternal lines of Louis VIII, a twelfth-century Capetian ruler. See Gabrielle M. Spiegel, "The Reditus regni ad stirpem Karoli Magni : A New Look," French Historical Studies 7/2 (1971): 145-74. For further discussion of Charles V's cultivation of Carolingian roots, see Hedeman, Royal Image , 98-99 and 103-4. [BACK]

57. For further details, see Hindman and Spiegel, "The Fleur-de-lis Frontispieces," 397. break [BACK]

58. Sherman, Portraits , pl. 22; Danielle Gaborit-Chopin, Fastes du gothique , no. 202, 249. The scepter also appears in a miniature from Charles V's copy of the Grandes chroniques de France (Paris, Bibl. Nat., MS fr. 2813, fol. 439). See Sherman, Portraits , pl. 21. [BACK]

59. Cazelles, Société politique , 529. Charles V also exempted the merchants of Charlemagne's capital from customs duties. See Gaston Zeller, "Les rois de France, candidats à l'Empire: Essai sur l'idéologie impériale en France," Revue historique 173 (1934): 305. [BACK]

60. Gaines Post, Studies in Medieval Legal Thought, Public Law, and the State, 1100-1322 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1964), 468. [BACK]

61. Paris, Bibl. Nat., MS fr. 175, cited by Delisle, Recherches , vol. 1, 98; and Golein, Traité du sacre , ed. Jackson, 322.

62. Le songe du vergier , ed. Schnerb-Lièvre, vol. 1, 269-88. Schnerb-Lièvre has established that the unknown translator of the Songe added the above-mentioned chapters and others that do not exist in the Latin text (the Somnium viridarii ) on which it is based. See ibid., vol. 1, lxvi. [BACK]

61. Paris, Bibl. Nat., MS fr. 175, cited by Delisle, Recherches , vol. 1, 98; and Golein, Traité du sacre , ed. Jackson, 322.

62. Le songe du vergier , ed. Schnerb-Lièvre, vol. 1, 269-88. Schnerb-Lièvre has established that the unknown translator of the Songe added the above-mentioned chapters and others that do not exist in the Latin text (the Somnium viridarii ) on which it is based. See ibid., vol. 1, lxvi. [BACK]

63. Paris, Bibl. Nat., MS fr. 2813, fol. 470v. See Sherman, Portraits , pl. 33 and 42-43. For an exhaustive treatment of this cycle, see Hedeman, Royal Image , 128-33. [BACK]

64. "L'original de Titus Livius en françois. La première translation qui en fu faite, escript de mauvaise lettre, mal enluminée, et point historiée" (Delisle, Recherches , vol. 2, no. 975, 160). Monfrin believes that the king's librarian, Gilles Malet, is referring to an earlier translation into French of the first Decade made in Italy in 1323 by Filippo da Santa Croce ("Humanisme et traductions au moyen âge," 171). In another inventory a citation seems to refer specifically to Bersuire's translation: "Titus Livius en françois, en très grant volume . . . de la translacion du prieur de Saint Eloy de Paris" (Delisle, Recherches , vol. 2, no. 981, 160; Monfrin, "Humanisme et traductions au moyen âge," 171). [BACK]

65. This manuscript is identified by the colophon as Charles V's copy (Paris, Bibl. Ste.-Geneviève, MS 777, fol. 434v). For the literature on the manuscript, see Avril, La librairie , no. 189, 108-9. For a discussion of the miniatures of Charles V's illustrated copies of Bersuire's translation, see Inge Zacher, "Die Livius-Illustration in der Pariser Buchmalerei, 1370-1420" (Ph.D. diss., Freie Universität Berlin, 1971), 14-15. [BACK]

66. Franco Simone, The French Renaissance: Medieval Tradition and Italian Influence in Shaping the Renaissance in France , trans. H. Gaston Hall (London: Macmillan, 1969), 90-92. See also Nicholas Mann, "La fortune de Pétrarque en France: Recherches sur le De remediis," Studi francesi 37 (1969): 1-15. For a useful summary of recent scholarship on the development of early French humanism, see G. Matteo Roccati, "L'umanesimo francese e l'Italia nella bibliografia recente, 1980-1990," Franco-Italia (1992): 161-71. [BACK]

67. Simone, French Renaissance , 55. See also Charity Cannon Willard, "Raoul de Presles's Translation of St. Augustine's De civitate Dei ," in Medieval Translators and Their Craft , ed. Jeanette Beer, Studies in Medieval Culture, 25 (Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute Publications, Western Michigan University, 1989), 329-46. break [BACK]

68. Beryl Smalley, English Friars and Antiquity in the Early Fourteenth Century (New York: Barnes & Noble, 1960), 108. [BACK]

69. De Laborde, Les manuscrits à peintures de la Cité de Dieu , vol. 1, 69. See Willard, "Raoul de Presles's Translation," 335-42. [BACK]

70. Sharon Off Dunlop Smith, "Illustrations of Raoul de Praelle's Translation of St. Augustine's City of God between 1375 and 1420" (Ph.D. diss., New York University, 1975); Willard, "Raoul de Presles's Translation," 333 and 341. [BACK]

71. Marjorie A. Berlincourt, "The Commentary on Valerius Maximus by Dionysius de Burgo Sancti Sepulchri and Its Influence upon Later Commentaries" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1954). See also Giuseppe Di Stefano, "Tradizione esegetica e traduzioni di Valerio Massimo nel primo umanesimo francese," Studi francesi 21 (1963): 403-17; and idem, Essais sur le moyen français (Padua: Liviana Editrice, 1977), 29-38. [BACK]

72. Brussels, Bibl. Royale Albert Ier, MS 9091; see Delisle, Recherches , vol. 1, 257-58. [BACK]

73. Cornelia C. Coulter, "The Library of the Angevin Kings at Naples," Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 75 (1944): 145 and 152-54; Monfrin, "Humanisme et traductions au moyen âge," 171. [BACK]

74. François Avril, "Trois manuscrits napolitains des collections de Charles V et de Jean de Berry," BiblEC 127 (1969): 291-328. The texts of the manuscripts are a Faits des Romains , a Histoire ancienne jusqu'à César , and a Bible of Robert of Anjou. [BACK]