1. Thorold Dickinson, Soviet Cinema (London: Falcon Press, 1948), pp. 132-33.

2. Istoriia sovetskogo teatra (Leningrad: Academia, 1933); Massovye prazdnestva (Leningrad: Academia, 1926). See also E. Riumin, Massovye prazdnestva, ed. O. M. Beskin (Moscow: GIZ, 1927); O. Tsekhnovitser, Prazdnestva revoliutsii (Leningrad: Priboi, 1931). On the artwork, see A. S. Gushchin, Izoiskusstvo v massovykh prazdnestvakh i demonstratsiiakh (Moscow: Khudozhestvennoe izdatel'skoe aktsionernoe ob—-vo, 1930), and Khudozhestvennoe oformlenie massovykh prazdnestv v Leningrade, 1918-1931 (Leningrad: Izogiz, 1932); Massovye prazdnestva v staroi i novoi grafike. Katalog vystavki (Moscow: Izd. gos. muzeia iziashchnykh iskusstv, 1927); A. Kuznetsova, A. S. Magidson, and Iu. P. Shchukin. Oformlenie goroda v dni revoliutsionnykh prazdnestv (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1932).

3. See Rosalinde Sartorti, "Stalinism and Carnival: Organization and Aesthetics of Political Holidays," and Richard Stites, "Stalinism and the Restructuring of Revolutionary Utopianism," in Hans Günther, ed., The Culture of the Stalin Period (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990).

4. Most notable were V. P. Tolstoi, "Materialy k istorii agitatsionnogo iskusstva perioda grazhdanskoi voiny," Soobshcheniia Instituta istorii iskusstv, Akademiia nauk SSSR, no. 3 (1953); Iurii Osnos, "U istokov sovetskogo teatra," Teatral'nyi al'manakh, no. 2 (1946); P. I. Lebedev, Sovetskoe iskusstvo v period inostrannoi interventsii i grazhdanskoi voiny (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1949); N. Shchekotov, ''Iskusstvo khudozhestvennogo oformleniia," Tvorchestvo, no. 3 (1938).

5. D. M. Genkin, Massovye prazdniki (Moscow: Prosveshchenie, 1975), p. 6.

6. V. I. Brudnyi, Obriady vchera i segodnia (Moscow: Nauka, 1968), pp. 164-80.

7. E. Speranskaia, ed., Agitatsionno-massovoe iskusstvo pervykh let oktiabria (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1971); I. M. Bibikova and N. I. Levchenko, comps., Agitatsionno-massovoe iskusstvo: Oformlenie prazdnestv (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1984); V. K. Aizenshtadt, Sovetskii samodeiatel'nyi teatr (Kharkov: KhGIK, 1983); T. M. Goriaeva, "Pervaia godovshchina oktiabr'skoi revoliutsii: Dokumenty," Istoriia SSSR, no. 6 (1987); Russkii-sovetskii teatr 1917-1921: Dokumenty i materialy (Leningrad: Iskusstvo, 1968).

8. Valentina Khodasevich, "Gorod—teatr, narod—akter," Dekorativnoe iskusstvo SSSR, no. 11 (1979), and "Massovye deistva, zrelishcha i prazdniki," Teatr, no. 11 (1967); Nikolai Petrov, 50 i 500 (Moscow: VTO, 1960); U istokov (Moscow: VTO, 1960); N. G. Vinogradov-Mamont, Krasnoarmeiskoe chudo (Leningrad: Iskusstvo, 1972).

9. For example, V. S. Aksenov, Organizatsiia massovykh prazdnikov trudiashchikhsia, 1918-1920 (Leningrad: LGIK, 1974); Brudnyi, Obriady vchera i segodnia; A. I. Chechetin, Istoriia massovykh narodnykh prazdnestv i predstavlenii (Moscow: Gos. inst. kul'tury, 1976); Genkin, Massovye prazdniki; P. P. Kampars and N. M. Zakovich, Sovetskaia grazhdanskaia obriadnost' (Moscow: Mysl', 1967); Massovye prazdniki i zrelishcha (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1961); A. I. Mazaev, Prazdnik kak sotsial'no-khudozhestvennoe iavlenie (Moscow: Nauka, 1978); V. G. Sinitsyn, ed., Nashi prazdniki (Moscow: Politizdat, 1977); V. Aizenshtadt, ed., Rezhissura i organizatsiia massovykh zrelishch (Kharkov: KhGIK, 1973); V. A. Rudnev, Sovetskie prazdniki, obriady, ritualy (Leningrad: Lenizdat, 1979).

10. See, for instance, Joseph Ben-David and Terry Clark, eds., Culture and Its Creators: Essays in Honor of Edward Shils (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977); Sean Wilentz, ed., Rites of Power: Symbolism, Ritual and Politics since the Middle Ages (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1985); David Cannadine and Simon Price, eds., Rituals of Royalty: Power and Ceremonial in Traditional Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Roy Strong, Art and Power: Renaissance Festivals 1450-1650 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984). Also: M. M. Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World, trans. Helene Iswolsky (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1968); Harvey Cox, The Feast of Fools (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1969); Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982); Barbara Babcock, ed., The Reversible World: Symbolic Inversion in Art and Society (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1978).

11. Mona Ozouf, Festivals and the French Revolution, trans. Alan Sheridan (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988); Maurice Agulhon, Marianne into Battle, trans. Janet Lloyd (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984).

12. See Abbott Gleason, Peter Kenez, Richard Stites, eds., Bolshevik Culture (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985); Sheila Fitzpatrick, ed., Cultural Revolution in Russia, 1928-1931 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978); Günther, The Culture of the Stalin Period .

13. Peter Kenez, The Birth of the Propaganda State: Soviet Methods of Mass Mobilization, 1917-1929 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Richard Stites, Revolutionary Dreams: Utopian Vision and Experimental Life in the Russian Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).

14. Nina Tumarkin, Lenin Lives! The Lenin Cult in Soviet Russia (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1983).

15. Katerina Clark, The Soviet Novel: History as Ritual (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981); Regine Robin, Le réalisme socialiste: Une esthétique impossible (Paris: Payot, 1986).

16. Frantishek Déak, "Russian Mass Spectacles," Drama Review 19, no. 2 (June 1975).

17. Richard Stites, "Adorning the Russian Revolution: The Primary Symbols of Bolshevism, 1917-1918," Sbornik, no. 10 (1984), and "The Origins of Soviet Ritual Style: Symbol and Festival in the Russian Revolution," in Claes Arvidsson and Lars Erik Blomqvist, eds., Symbols of Power: The Esthetics of Political Legitimation in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1987).

18. Christel Lane, The Rites of Rulers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Christopher A. P. Binns, "The Changing Face of Power: Revolution and Accommodation in the Development of Soviet Ceremonial Systems," Man, no. 4 (1979), no. 1 (1980).

19. Many sources on the French fêtes were available to Russians, including André Grétry, Memoires ou essais sur la musique (Liège: Vaillant-Carmanne, 1914); P. A. Kropotkin, The Great French Revolution, 1789-1793 (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1909); Julien Tiersot, Les fêtes et les chants de la Revolution française (Paris: Hachette et cie, 1908)—in Russian: Prazdnestva i pesni frantsuzskoi revoliutsii, trans. K. Zhikhareva (Petrograd: Izd. Parus, 1917).

20. Eugene Zamiatin, We, trans. Gregory Zilboorg (New York: Dutton, 1952), pp. 131-32.

21. Lane, The Rites of Rulers, pp. 2-3.

1. This description has been condensed from the organizer's account: G. S. Maliuchenko, "Pervye teatral'nye sezony novoi epokhi," in U istokov, pp. 285-87. The quotation is from Maliuchenko. I could not find any such article in the Voronezh Telegraph for that summer.

2. See A. Ia. Alekseev-Iakovlev, Russkie narodnye gulianiia, ed. Evg. Kuznetsov (Leningrad: Iskusstvo, 1948), p. 144. See pp. 100 ff. for descriptions of a number of such productions; for more shows (without descriptions) see the lists in Istoriia sovetskogo teatra (Leningrad: Academia, 1933), p. 153, or Nikolai A. Gorchakov, The Theater in Soviet Russia, trans. Edgar Lehrman (New York: Columbia University Press, 1957), p. 421, note 77.

3. Iu. A. Dmitriev, Russkii tsirk (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1953), p. 194.

4. Genkin, Massovye prazdniki, p. 33. On the celebrations of Nicholas II

and his immediate predecessors, see Richard Wortman, "Moscow and Petersburg: The Problem of the Political Center in Tsarist Russia, 1881-1914," in Wilentz, Rites of Power .

5. For the program, see N. N. Vinogradov, ed., Prazdnovanie 300-letiia tsarstvovaniia Doma Romanovykh v kostromskoi gubernii 19-20 maia 1913 goda (Kostroma: Gub. tipografiia, 1914).

6. M. A. Chekhov, Put' aktera (Leningrad: Academia, 1928), pp. 64-69.

7. See V. V. Vsevolodskii-Gerngross, Istoriia russkogo teatra (Leningrad: Teakinopechat', 1929), vol. 1, 360-64. The English reader will find some descriptions in Robert K. Massie, Peter the Great (New York: Knopf, 1980), pp. 147-48, 268-71, 740-43.

8. It is described in Torzhestvuiushchaia Minerva: Obshchenarodnoe zrelishche, predstavlennoe bol'shim maskaradom v Moskve 1763 goda (Moscow: Imperatorskii Moskovskii universitet, 1763).

9. See Iu. A. Dmitriev, Mikhail Lentovskii (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1978), pp. 194-95. A special illustrated pamphlet was published also: Vesna krasna, illustrated by F. O. Shekhtel' (Moscow, 1883).

10. This period is treated in Charles Rougle, "The Intelligentsia Debate in Russia 1917-1918," in Nils Ake Nilsson, ed., Art, Society, Revolution: Russia, 1917-1921 (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1979). Another discussion of the commission, and of the All-Arts Union, which will presently be discussed, can be found in K. D. Muratova, M. Gor'kii v bor'be za razvitie sovetskoi literatury (Moscow: AN SSSR, 1958), pp. 22-50. Although her discussion of leftist artists betrays a certain bias, the archival materials used are of value. A more balanced treatment can be found in V. P. Lapshin, Khudozhestvennaia zhizn' Moskvy i Petrograda v 1917 godu (Moscow: Sovetskii khudozhnik, 1983), pp. 73-85.

11. I thank Hubertus Jahn for this information.

12. For the styles of interrevolutionary demonstrations, see Stites, "The Origins of Soviet Ritual Style," pp. 23-29.

13. LGAOR, f. 2551, op. 1, d. 2246.

14. Noted by V. D[esnitsky], "Eshche ne pozdno!" NZh, 21 April 1917, p. 2; Peter A. Garvi, Zapiski Sotsial-Demokrata, 1906-1921 (Newtonville, Mass.: Oriental Research Partners, 1982), p. 266.

15. See Lapshin, Khudozhestvennaia zhizn', pp. 119-24.

16. See Oleg Nemiro, "Prazdnik svobody, vesny i tsvetov," Neva, no. 5 (1967), pp. 205-7. More evidence would be needed before this claim could be accepted.

17. Vo imia svobody. Odnodnevnaia gazeta (Petrograd: Soiuz deiatelei iskusstv, 25 May 1917). The editor was Sologub.

18. In his Kollektivnaia refleksologiia (Petrograd: Kolos, 1921), pp. 176-79, the eminent psychophysiologist Vladimir Bekhterev used the bond campaign as an example of inflamed crowd psychology.

19. A. Rostislavov, "Revoliutsiia i khudozhestvennaia zhizn'," Rech', 26 May 1917, p. 3.

20. The attribution of the performance to Gaideburov's group belongs to S. S. Mokul'skii, "Programma burzhuaznoi revoliutsii v teatre," in Istoriia

sovetskogo teatra, p. 50. The description below is taken from L___v, ''Teatr i muzyka. Teatr na ulitse," Rech', 30 May 1917, p. 7.

21. See E. M. Bebutova, "Vospominaniia," in Iz istorii stroitel'stva sovetskoi kul'tury: Moskva 1917-1918 gg. (Moscow: Mysl', 1964).

22. This People's Art Academy is described in "Khronika," Put' osvobozhdeniia, no. 4 (1917), p. 21.

23. P. V. Kuznetsov, "Iskusstvo v 1917 godu," in Iz istorii, pp. 314-15.

24. Tiersot, Prazdnestva i pesni frantsuzskoi revoliutsii . The translation project was begun before the October Revolution.

25. A. V. Lunacharskii, "O narodnykh prazdnestvakh," VT, no. 62 (1920), p. 4.

26. Most notably, A. V. Lunacharskii, "Sotsializm i iskusstvo," in the anthology Teatr: Kniga o novom teatre (St. Petersburg: Shipovnik, 1908), and the social-democratic response to this anthology, Krizis teatra: Sbornik statei (Moscow: Problemy iskusstva, 1908), in particular V. Friche, "Teatr v sovremennom i budushchem obshchestve."

27. Anatolii Strigalev, "Sviaz' vremen," Dekorativnoe iskusstvo SSSR, no. 4 (1978), pp. 1-2.

28. Quoted from account reprinted in Lapshin, Khudozhestvennaia zhizn', p. 389.

29. M. Kuzmin, "Rampa geroizma," ZI, 20 November 1918, p. 2.

30. M. Kuzmin, "Tsirk," ZI, 4 January 1919, pp. 1-2.

31. The best description is to be found in Iu. Iur'ev, Zapiski (Leningrad: Iskusstvo, 1963), pp. 249-69.

32. He had expressed the opinion even before the October Revolution: A. V. Lunacharskii, "Kul'tura sotsializma torzhestvuiushchego i sotsializma boriushchegosia," NZh', 21 June 1917, p. 4. His stand was based more on Hegelianism than cynicism.

33. Romain Rolland, Le théâtre du peuple (Paris: Suresnes, 1903). First translated in 1910, then 1919: Narodnyi teatr, introduction by Viach. Ivanov (Petrograd-Moscow: Izd. TEO NKP, 1919).

34. For the policy and practices of Proletkult, see Lynn Mally, Culture of the Future: The Proletkult Movement in Revolutionary Russia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).

35. See, for instance, Sheldon Cheney, The Open-Air Theater (New York: Mitchell Kennerly, 1918), pp. 5 ff.

36. For example, Evg. Bezpiatov, "Teatr pod otkrytym nebom," Narodnyi teatr, no. 3-4 (1918), pp. 25-27, or B. Nikonov, "Teatr, blizkii k prirode," ZI, 20 May 1919, p. 3.

37. Percy MacKaye, The Civic Theatre (New York: Mitchell Kennerly, 1912).

38. Ibid., p. 15.

37. Percy MacKaye, The Civic Theatre (New York: Mitchell Kennerly, 1912).

38. Ibid., p. 15.

39. For mention of MacKaye in the Soviet literature, see besides Kerzhentsev's books (referred to in next note): A. A. Gvozdev, "Massovye prazdnestva na zapade," in Massovye prazdnestva, pp. 48-50.

40. "Doklad tov. V. Kerzhentsev," in P.I. Lebedev-Polianskii, ed., Protokoly pervoi vserossiiskoi konferentsii proletarskikh kul'turno-prosvetitel'nykh organizatsii,

15-20 sent. 1918 g. (Moscow: Proletarskaia kul'tura, 1918). The protocols of the session on theater are translated in William Rosenberg, ed., Bolshevik Visions: The First Phase of the Cultural Revolution in Soviet Russia (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Ardis, 1984), pp. 428-35. The following two books were published as practical and theoretical treatises (Kerzhentsev explicitly separated the two): V. Kerzhentsev, Revoliutsiia i teatr (Moscow: Dennitsa, 1918) (practical program); and Tvorcheskii teatr (five editions from 1918 to 1923; all further citations are from the edition published in Moscow by Gosizdat in 1923). See pp. 28-30 for his discussion of MacKaye and the American festivals.

41. Kerzhentsev, Tvorcheskii teatr, p. 23.

42. Ibid., p. 37.

43. Ibid., p. 44.

41. Kerzhentsev, Tvorcheskii teatr, p. 23.

42. Ibid., p. 37.

43. Ibid., p. 44.

41. Kerzhentsev, Tvorcheskii teatr, p. 23.

42. Ibid., p. 37.

43. Ibid., p. 44.

44. The word was used to translate MacKaye's term into Russian. See Gvozdev, "Massovye prazdnestva na zapade," p. 48.

45. A. A. Mgebrov, Zhizn' v teatre (Leningrad: Academia, 1932), vol. 2, p. 43.

46. Russkii-sovetskii teatr 1917-1921, p. 338.

47. Mgebrov, Zhizn' v teatre, vol. 2, p. 321.

48. "Doklad tov. V. Kerzhentsev," p. 122.

49. Mgebrov, Zhizn' v teatre, vol. 2, pp. 322-23. On pp. 321-31 of vol. 2 Mgebrov provides the best description of the declamations, and mine will be based on his account. For a summary of the critical reaction, see the section "Studiia Petrogradskogo Proletkul'ta" in D. I. Zolotnitskii, Zori teatral'nogo oktiabria (Leningrad: Iskusstvo, 1976).

50. See Russkii-sovetskii teatr 1917-1921, p. 347.

51. Mgebrov, Zhizn' v teatre, vol. 2, p. 324. This sort of staging led to accusations of an antirealist bias. Photos of another Proletkult instsenirovka, Whitman's Europe, are in Plamia, 22 September 1918, p. 13.

52. Mgebrov, Zhizn' v teatre, vol. 2, pp. 328-29.

53. Ibid., pp. 329-30.

52. Mgebrov, Zhizn' v teatre, vol. 2, pp. 328-29.

53. Ibid., pp. 329-30.

54. The influence of Wagner's pamphlets, which were reprinted in 1918, is discussed in Lars Kleberg, "'People's Theater' and the Revolution. On the History of a Concept before and after 1917," in Nilsson, ed., Art, Society, Revolution .

55. Lunacharskii, "Sotsializm i iskusstvo," in Teatr, p. 28.

56. From Richard Wagner, Prose Works, trans. William Ashton Ellis (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co., 1895), vol. 1, p. 90. A Russian translation was published in 1918: Iskusstvo i revoliutsiia (Petrograd: LITO Narkomprosa, 1918).

57. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 74.

58. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 34.

59. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 51-52.

60. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 59.

56. From Richard Wagner, Prose Works, trans. William Ashton Ellis (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co., 1895), vol. 1, p. 90. A Russian translation was published in 1918: Iskusstvo i revoliutsiia (Petrograd: LITO Narkomprosa, 1918).

57. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 74.

58. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 34.

59. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 51-52.

60. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 59.

56. From Richard Wagner, Prose Works, trans. William Ashton Ellis (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co., 1895), vol. 1, p. 90. A Russian translation was published in 1918: Iskusstvo i revoliutsiia (Petrograd: LITO Narkomprosa, 1918).

57. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 74.

58. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 34.

59. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 51-52.

60. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 59.

56. From Richard Wagner, Prose Works, trans. William Ashton Ellis (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co., 1895), vol. 1, p. 90. A Russian translation was published in 1918: Iskusstvo i revoliutsiia (Petrograd: LITO Narkomprosa, 1918).

57. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 74.

58. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 34.

59. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 51-52.

60. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 59.

56. From Richard Wagner, Prose Works, trans. William Ashton Ellis (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co., 1895), vol. 1, p. 90. A Russian translation was published in 1918: Iskusstvo i revoliutsiia (Petrograd: LITO Narkomprosa, 1918).

57. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 74.

58. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 34.

59. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 51-52.

60. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 59.

61. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Politics and the Arts: Letter to M. D'Alembert on the Theatre, trans. Allan Bloom (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1960), p. 126.

62. Friche, "Teatr v sovremennom i budushchem obshchestve," in Krizis teatra, p. 185.

63. Frederick Engels, The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, trans. Eleanor Burke Leacock (New York: International Publishers, 1972), p. 237. The emphasis is Engels's.

64. See his articles on proletarian culture in A. A. Bogdanov, Iskusstvo i rabochii klass (Moscow: Proletarskaia kul'tura, 1918).

65. A. A. Bogdanov, Red Star: The First Bolshevik Utopia (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984), pp. 76-79. This work was first published in 1908 and was widely read before and after the Revolution.

66. Lunacharskii, "Sotsializm i iskusstvo," in Teatr, p. 30. For the development of his ideas on Wagner, see Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal, "Wagner and Wagnerian Ideas in Russia" in David C. Lange and William Weber, eds., Wagnerism in European Culture and Politics (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1984), pp. 240-42.

67. N. K. Krupskaia, "Glavpolitprosvet i iskusstvo," P, 13 February 1921.

68. For a summary of Ivanov's views of theater, see Lars Kleberg, "Vjaceslav Ivanov and the Idea of Theater," in Lars Kleberg and Nils Ake Nilsson, eds., Theater and Literature in Russia 1900-1930 (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1984).

69. A. Skriabin, Pis'ma (Moscow: Muzyka, 1965), p. 15.

70. See Alfred J. Swan, Scriabin (London: John Lane, 1923), pp. 97-111.

71. "Predchuvstviia i predvestiia" (1906), collected in Viacheslav Ivanov, Po zvezdam (St. Petersburg: Izd. Ory, 1909), p. 206. See also "Nitsshe i Dionis," in Ivanov, Po zvezdam, p. 8, and "The Essence of Tragedy," translated in Laurence Senelick, ed., Russian Dramatic Theory from Pushkin to the Symbolists (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981), pp. 210 ff.

72. "Predchuvstviia i predvestiia," in Ivanov, Po zvezdam, pp. 212-13.

73. Viacheslav Ivanov, Borozdy i mezhi (Moscow: Musaget, 1916), p. 265.

74. The idea is best expressed in "Kop'e Afeny" (1904), collected in Ivanov, Po zvezdam .

75. "Dve stixii v simvolizme" (1908), in Ivanov, Po zvezdam, p. 285.

76. "Predchuvstviia i predvestiia," in Ivanov, Po zvezdam, p. 218.

77. This view was forwarded notably by M. Gorky: The Confession, trans. Rose Strunsky (New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1909), chs. 14 ff.

78. A. V. Lunacharskii, Religiia i sotsializm (St. Petersburg: Shipovnik, 1908-11), vol. 1, p. 16.

79. See the letter from Meyerhold to Briusov in V. E. Meyerhold, Perepiska, 1896-1939 (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1976), p. 59.

1. U istokov, p. 281. The original grammar has been preserved.

2. The following description is based on ibid., pp. 277-80.

3. "Two Tactics of Social Democracy in the Democratic Revolution," in V. I. Lenin, Collected Works (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1960-70), vol. 9, p. 113.

4. Ozouf, Festivals and the French Revolution, chs. 6 and 7.

5. Mircea Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane, trans. Willard R. Trask (New York: Harcourt and Brace, 1959), particularly ch. 1; Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World .

6. Mircea Eliade, Cosmos and History: The Myth of the Eternal Return, trans. Willard R. Trask (New York: Harper, 1959), pp. 4-6; see also Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane, ch. 1.

7. E. Speranskaia, "Materialy k istorii oformleniia pervykh revoliutsionnykh prazdnestv v Saratove i Nizhnem Novgorode," in AMI (1971), p. 141.

8. The Smolny Institute was Bolshevik headquarters during the October uprising.

9. "Monuments Not Made by Human Hands," in K. S. Malevich, Essays in Art, 1915-1933, ed. Troels Andersen (London: Rapp & Whiting, 1968), vol. 1, p. 65.

10. See M. L[ev]in, "Miting ob iskusstve," IK, 7 November 1918, p. 3.

11. Truman Guy Steffan, ed., Lord Byron's Cain (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1968), p. 189.

12. Valerii Briusov, "Nenuzhnaia pravda," Mir iskusstva, no. 4 (1902).

13. Translated variously as "stylized," "relativistic," "conditional," and "conventional," it means ''agreed on.'' Conventional will be used here, with the reservation that it not have the negative connotation of "routine." See V. Briusov, "Realizm i uslovnost' na stsene," in Teatr, translated as "Realism and Convention on the Stage" in Senelick, ed., Russian Dramatic Theory, pp. 171-82.

14. Briusov, "Realism," p. 178.

15. V. E. Meyerhold, Stat'i, pis'ma, rechi, besedy (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1968), vol. 1, p. 96.

16. Konstantin Rudnitsky, Meyerhold the Director, trans. George Petrov (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Ardis, 1981), pp. 100-101.

17. Meyerhold, Stat'i, vol. 1, p. 237.

18. On this point, see Lars Kleberg, "People's Theater and the Revolution: On the History of a Concept before and after 1917," in Nilsson, ed., Art, Society, Revolution .

19. V. E. Meyerhold, "The Stylized Theatre," in Vsevolod Meyerhold on Theatre, trans. Edward Braun (New York: Hill and Wang, 1969), p. 63.

20. Meyerhold, "The Search for New Forms 1902-1907," in Vsevold Meyerhold on Theatre, p. 56. First published in Teatr .

21. K. R., Tsar' Iudeiskii (St. Petersburg: Tipografiia Ministerstva vnutrennykh del, 1914). This edition has photographs of the production described below. The play was translated into many languages, including English: [Grand Duke] K[onstantin Konstantinovich] R[omanov], The King of the Jews: A Sacred Drama, trans. Victor E. Marsden (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1914).

22. In late 1920 Soviet critics were still fulminating against the play: "Opium dlia naroda," VT, no. 70 (1920), pp. 8-9.

23. Istoriia sovetskogo teatra, p. 13.

24. Victor Marsden, who translated the play into English, was also the enthusiastic translator of The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion, translated from the Russian of Nilus by Victor E. Marsden (London: The Britons, 1923).

25. Dimitri Tiomkin and Prosper Buranelli, Please Don't Hate Me (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1959), p. 43. The score is included in the Russian edition of the play.

26. Most of the above information was taken from N. N. Gievskii, "Iz teatral'nykh vospominanii," Novyi zhurnal, no. 10 (1945), pp. 282-88, 291.

27. On Bakhtin and GIII, see Katerina Clark and Michael Holquist, Mikhail Bakhtin (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984), 96-97.

28. Characteristically, a GIII colleague saw the Feast of Fools as an expression of class struggle. See A. A. Gvozdev, Massovye prazdnestva na zapade (Petergof, 1926), p. 19.

29. A prominent advocate of festivity's revolutionary potential was Adrian Piotrovsky, a scholar at GIII and leading director of mass spectacles in 1919-20. See, for instance, his "K teorii samodeiatel'nogo teatra," in Problemy sotsiologii iskusstva (Leningrad: Academia, 1926).

30. See D. S. Likhachev, A. M. Panchenko, and N. V. Ponyrko, Smekhovoi mir drevnei Rusi (Leningrad: Nauka, 1976), pp. 25-35; and Russell Zguta, "Peter I's Drunken Synod of Fools and Jesters," Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 21, no. 1 (1973), pp. 18-28.

31. Evg. Vakhtangov, Materialy i stat'i (Moscow: VTO, 1959), pp. 104-5.

32. V. Smyshliaev, "Opyt instsenirovki stikhotvoreniia Verkharna 'Vosstaniia,'" Gorn, no. 2-3 (1919), p. 82.

33. See "The Tragical in Daily Life," in Maurice Maeterlinck, The Treasure of the Humble, trans. Alfred Sutro (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1903), pp. 105-9.

34. This information has been culled from a longer description: V. Piast, Vstrechi (Moscow: Federatsiia, 1929), pp. 169-80.

35. Mgebrov, Zhizn' v teatre, vol. 2, p. 202.

36. From Meyerhold's production notes, in Vsevolod Meyerhold on Theatre, p. 143.

37. The history of the problem is discussed by Lars Kleberg, "Sootnoshenie stseny i zritel'nogo zala. K tipologii russkogo teatra nachala XX veka," ScandoSlavica 20 (1974).

38. Andrei Bely, "Theater and Modern Drama," in Teatr; translated in Senelick, ed., Russian Dramatic Theory, p. 158.

39. Ibid., p. 159.

38. Andrei Bely, "Theater and Modern Drama," in Teatr; translated in Senelick, ed., Russian Dramatic Theory, p. 158.

39. Ibid., p. 159.

40. Aleksandr Blok, "On Drama," in Senelick, ed., Russian Dramatic Theory, p. 110.

41. Balaganchik, in Aleksandr Blok, Sobranie sochinenii (Moscow: Khudozh. literatura, 1963), vol. 4, p. 20.

42. This period is well documented. See V. V. Sipovskii, "Italianskii teatr pri Anne Ioannovne," Russkaia starina, no. 5, June 1900, pp. 593-611; or V. N. Perets, Italianskie komedii i intermedii, predstavlennye pri dvore imp. Anny Ioannovny v 1733-1735 gg. (Petrograd: Imp. akademiia nauk, 1917).

43. See T. M. Rodina, Aleksandr Blok i russkii teatr nachala XX veka (Moscow: Nauka, 1972), p. 133.

44. In the Foreword to his Lyrical Dramas, one of which was Balaganchik, in Blok, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 4, p. 434.

45. On prerevolutionary Russian cabarets, see Harold B. Segel, Turn-of-the-

Century Cabaret: Paris, Barcelona, Berlin, Munich, Vienna, Cracow, Moscow, St. Petersburg, Zurich (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987).

46. For readers of English there is an excellent monograph on Evreinov: Spencer Golub, Evreinov: The Theatre of Paradox and Transformation (Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI Research Press, 1984).

47. Nikolai Nikolaevich Evreinov, The Theatre in Life, trans. Alexander I. Nazaroff (New York: Brentano's, 1927), p. 30.

48. Aleksandr Tairov, Proklamatsiia khudozhnika (Moscow: Shlugleit i Bronshtein, 1917), p. 4.

49. See my article on Nietzsche and the Soviet popular theater, "Nietzsche and the Debate on Mass Theater from the Civil War to NEP," in Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal, ed., Nietzsche in Russia, vol. 2 (forthcoming).

50. "K prazdniku revoliutsii," VIMS, 26 September 1918, p. 3.

51. V. E. Meyerhold, "Voina i teatr," Birzhevye vedemosti (evening edition), 11 September 1914, p. 4.

52. P. S. Kogan, "Teatr tribuna," VT, no. 2 (1919), see also P. S. Kogan, V preddverii griadushchego teatra (Moscow: Pervina, 1921), p. 14.

53. N. N. Evreinov, V shkole ostroumiia [unpublished memoirs]. TsGALI, f. 982, op. 1, d. 13, II. 31-32.

54. The script is in Liubov' k trem apel'sinam, no. 6-7 (1914), pp. 19-55.

55. Vladimir Maiakovskii, Misteriia-Buff, geroicheskoe i satiricheskoe izobrazhenie nashei epokhi, 1918 g, in V. V. Maiakovskii, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii (Moscow: Khudozh. literatura, 1955-61).

56. V. Katanian, Maiakovskii, literaturnaia khronika (Leningrad: Sovetskii pisatel', 1948), pp. 90, 102, places it after February; Mayakovsky dates the idea to early fall: "Ia sam," PSS, vol. 1, p. 24. Most of the writing was done in 1918: A. Fevral'skii, Pervaia sovetskaia p'esa (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel', 1971), pp. 18 ff.

57. N. Punin, "Kak moglo byt' inache?" IK, 12 January 1919, p. 1.

58. RoseLee Goldberg, Performance: Live Art from 1909 to the Present (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1979), pp. 9-10.

59. M. Zagorskii, "Kak reagiruet zritel'," Lef, no. 2 (1924), pp. 141-51.

60. Vladimir Markov, Russian Futurism: A History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968), p. 107.

61. See John E. Bowlt, "The Union of Youth," in George Gibian and H. W. Tjalsma, eds., Russian Modernism: Culture and the Avant-Garde, 1900-1930 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1976), pp. 177-80, and Markov, Russian Futurism, pp. 142-47.

62. On the apocalyptic tendency in prerevolutionary culture, see B. G. Rosenthal, "Eschatology and the Appeal of the Revolution: Merezhkovsky, Bely, Blok," California Slavic Studies, no. 2 (1980).

63. As shown in Mayakovsky's sketches, included in the PSS text.

64. S. V. Vladimirov, "Maiakovskii," in Ocherki istorii russkoi-sovetskoi dramaturgii, 1917-1934 (Leningrad: Iskusstvo, 1963), vol. 1, p. 102. For some interesting ideas on the influence of the folk theater on the Russian revolutionary theater, see N. S. Zelentsova, Narodnyi revoliutsionnyi teatr v Rossii epokhi grazhdanskoi voiny i revoliutsii (Moscow, 1971).

65. See Edward Braun, The Theatre of Meyerhold. Revolution and the Modern Stage (New York: Drama Book Specialists, 1979), p. 150.

66. The recollections of V. N. Soloviev, Maiakovskomu (Leningrad: Khudozh. literatura, 1940), p. 149.

67. The Kozlinsky drawings appeared originally in Oktiabr' 1917-1918. Geroi i zhertvy Oktiabria (Petrograd: IZO Narkomprosa, 1918); both the drawings and the street paintings are in Mikhail German, ed., Serdtsem slushaia revoliutsiiu. Iskusstvo pervykh let oktiabria (Leningrad: Aurora, 1980), plates 148, 94-99.

68. See Rudnitsky, Meyerhold the Director, p. 256. Contrary to what historians have claimed, a picture of Malevich's work has survived; see Novyi zritel', 7 November 1927, p. 6.

69. German, ed., Serdtsem, plate 305.

70. According to Fevral'skii, Pervaia sovetskaia p'esa, p. 73.

71. Alekseev-Iakovlev, Russkie narodnye gulianiia, pp. 162-63.

72. For the presence of popular theater in the poem, see B. M. Gasparov and Iu. M. Lotman, "Igrovye motivy v poème Dvenadtsat, " Tezisy I Vsesoiuznoi konferentsii " Tvorchestvo A. A. Bloka i russkaia kul'tura XX veka " (Tartu, 1975), and Iu. M. Lotman, "Blok i narodnaia kul'tura goroda," in Blokovskii sbornik, vol. 4 (Tartu: Gos. universitet, 1981).

73. Maiakovskii, Misteriia-Buff, p. 212. The passage suffers much in translation.

1. "Petrograd 1-e maia," P, 4 May 1918, p. 4.

2. AMI (1971), p. 13.

3. Gushchin, Izo-iskusstvo v massovykh prazdnestvakh, p. 12.

4. Ibid., pp. 12-13.

3. Gushchin, Izo-iskusstvo v massovykh prazdnestvakh, p. 12.

4. Ibid., pp. 12-13.

5. Oleg Nemiro, V gorod prishel prazdnik (Leningrad: Aurora, 1973), pp. 15-16.

6. AMI (1971), p. 138.

7. AMI (1971), pp. 19-20, plates 5-6; AMI (1984), plates 36-39; A. Strigalev, "M. V. Dobuzhinskii v revoliutsionnye gody," Sovetskoe monumental'noe iskusstvo, no. 75-77 (1979), pp. 244-56.

8. N. P[unin], "K itogam oktiabr' skikh torzhestv," IK, 7 December 1918.

9. See Iz istorii, pp. 121 ff., for the protocols of some of the planning sessions.

10. A. Chiniakov, Brat'ia Vesniny (Moscow: Stroiizdat, 1970), p. 50. See AMI (1971), plates 72-92.

11. Blokovskii sbornik, vol. 1, p. 332.

12. V. Kerzhentsev, "Peredelyvaite p'esy," VT, no. 36 (1919), pp. 6-8.

13. V. Kerzhenstev, "Mozhno li 'iskazhat" p'esy postanovkoi," VT, no. 1 (1919), p. 2.

14. V. Smyshliaev, "Deiatel'nost' teatral'nogo otdela Moskovskogo Proletkul'ta," VT, no. 35 (1919), p. 5.

15. N. F., "Novye stsenarii dlia opery Glinki," VT, no. 89-90 (1921), pp. 12-13.

16. N. Malkov, "Za krasnyi Petrograd," ZI, 5 May 1925, p. 10.

17. For a collection of eyewitness reports, see Spektakl', zvavshii v boi (Kiev: Mistetstvo, 1970). For a contemporary view, see L. Nikulin, "Teatr na Ukraine. Pis'mo iz Kieva," VT, no. 33 (1919), p. 16.

18. Presumably the opera Fidelio, traditionally performed with the "Lenore" overture, which ends in the liberation of political prisoners and a freedom chorus.

19. "Opera S.R.D.," TK, 12-14 November 1918, pp. 2-3; "V teatrakh. Opera S.R.D." IzvTsIK, 9 November 1918, p. 5. See also Igor Il'inskii, Sam o sebe (Moscow: VTO, 1961), pp. 86-88.

20. AMI (1971), pp. 99-100. A black-and-white photo of the curtain can be found in René Fülöp-Miller and Joseph Gregor, The Russian Theatre (New York: Benjamin Blom, 1930), p. 257. A. Raikhenshtein—"1 maia i 7 noiabria 1918 g. v Moskve," in AMI (1971)—provides sufficient evidence for the planning of such a performance for November 1918, but it should be noted that Lentulov dated it to 1923 and claimed the director was Nemirovich-Danchenko: M. Lentulova, Khudozhnik Aristarkh Lentulov (Moscow: Sovetskii khudozhnik, 1969), pp. 95-96. Bolshoi Theater archives date the performance to November 1919: Russkii-sovetskii teatr, p. 92.

21. Pavel Markov, "Pervye gody," Teatr, no. 11 (1957), p. 67; see also "Teatr v oktiabr'skie torzhestva. Bol'shoi teatr," TK, 12-14 November 1918, pp. 2-3.

22. Paul Avrich, Russian Rebels 1600-1800 (New York: Norton, 1976), pp. 265-67.

23. Quoted in Alexander Rabinowitch, The Bolsheviks Come to Power (New York: Norton, 1976), p. 277.

24. Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 29, p. 331. To add another twist to history, the monument dedicated by Lenin was first proposed by the interrevolutionary Cossack Committee: "Pamiatnik Razinu," DN, 30 April 1918, p. 3.

25. AMI (1971), pp. 85-86.

26. AMI (1984), plate 55.

27. Information on the presentation is sparse. I believe it was a staging of his poem of the same name, published in Moscow in 1918. In 1919 a dramatic text based on the poem was published: Vasilii Kamenskii, Sten'ka Razin. Kollektivnoe predstavlenie v 9-i kartinakh (Petrograd, 1919). On November 7, 1918, though, Kamensky did star in a reading of the poem, in a circus from atop a horse: "Grandioznoe zrelishche," TK, 29 October 1918, p. 2; Iurii Sobolev, "Sten'ka Razin," TK, 12-14 November 1918, p. 3.

28. Fragments of the poem were published as "Chugunnoe zhit'e" in the futurist anthology Moloko kobylits: sbornik. Risunki, stikhi, proza (Moscow: Gileia, 1914).

29. Vasilii Kamenskii, Stikhotvoreniia i poemy (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel', 1966), p. 469.

30. See A. I. Klibanov, Narodnaia sotsial'naia utopiia v Rossii: XIX vek (Moscow: Nauka, 1978), or Stites, Revolutionary Dreams, pp. 14-19.

31. Lunacharskii, Religiia i sotsialism .

32. AMI (1971), p. 95; Kuzma Petrov-Vodkin (Leningrad: Aurora, 1980).

33. Proletarskie poety pervykh let sovetskoi epokhi (Leningrad: Sovetskii pisatel', 1959), p. 232; my translation.

34. Pavel Arskii, "Gimn," Pl, 12 May 1918, p. 7.

35. B. Shishlo, "Ulitsa revoliutsii," Dekorativnoe iskusstvo SSSR, no. 3 (1970), p. 6.

36. Nikolai Petrov, 50 i 500, pp. 15-16.

37. Viktor Shklovskii, "Soglashateli," in Khod konia (Berlin: Helikon, 1923).

38. P. Kozlov, Legenda o kommunare. P'esa-poema v 5 kartinakh (Arkhangelsk: Volna, 1923), p. 5. The play actually has only three scenes. Summaries of the text and performance can be found in Mgebrov, Zhizn' v teatre, vol. 2, pp. 480-500, and L. Tamashin, Sovetskaia dramaturgiia v gody grazhdanskoi voiny (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1961), pp. 90-94.

39. Kozlov, Legenda, pp. 2-3.

40. Ibid., p. 16.

39. Kozlov, Legenda, pp. 2-3.

40. Ibid., p. 16.

41. Mgebrov, Zhizn' v teatr, vol. 2, p. 483.

42. M. Zagorskii, "Legenda o kommunare," VT, no. 56 (1920), p. 9.

43. Kozlov, Legenda, p. 22.

44. Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution; Agulhon, Marianne into Battle . For a study of the use of a similar approach by Russian revolutionary culture, see Victoria E. Bonnell, "The Representation of Politics and the Politics of Representation," Russian Review 47 (1988).

45. This idea was put forward by Maurice Agulhon, "Politics, Images and Symbols in Post-Revolutionary France," in Wilentz, Rites of Power, p. 185.

46. IzvTslK, 14 April 1918, p. 3.

47. "Lenin o monumental'noi propagande," in Literaturnaia gazeta, no.4-5 (1933). Reprinted in A. V. Lunacharskii, Vospominaniia i vpechatleniia (Moscow: Sovetskaia Rossiia, 1968), p. 199. Lunacharsky recorded his memoirs in 1933, when Lenin's views on art had acquired more sanctity than they had in 1918, and I suspect that his enthusiasm was magnified in the account. For an unexpurgated view of what Lenin thought of the statues (he hated them) and of art in general, see A. V. Lunacharskii, "Lenin i iskusstvo," Khudozhnik i zritel', no. 2-3 (1924), pp. 5-10. Later reprints of this article have been heavily edited.

48. Sergei Eisenstein used footage of these "ceremonies" in Ten Days That Shook the World .

49. Iz istorii, pp. 38-44.

50. At the dedication of the monument to Blanqui, a brochure with the title Blanqui: the First Communist Buried Alive was distributed: "K otkrytiiu pamiatnika Blanki," ZI, 4 March 1919, p. 3.

51. See IzvTsIK, 2 August 1918. The list given here differs somewhat from that in Iz istorii .

52. For a full schedule of the openings, see "K prazdnovaniiu godovshchiny oktiabr'skoi revoliutsii," P, 6 November 1918, p. 4. Some of the speeches were amplified by a new invention commissioned by the Central Organizing Bureau: the loudspeaker. See "Liubopytnoe izobretenie," ZI, 29 October 1918, p. 7.

53. Robespierre's statue was vandalized on its first night outdoors. This desecration should not have been a surprise: in his opening speech, Lev Kamenev praised Robespierre for "crushing the French counterrevolution with an iron hand and creating a Red Army." "Iz Moskvy," SK, 5 November 1918, p. 3.

54. For photos see Hans-Jürgen Drengenberg, Die sowjetische Politik auf dem Gebiet der bildenden Kunst von 1917 bis 1934 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1972); also John E. Bowlt, "Russian Sculpture and Lenin's Plan of Monumental Propaganda," in Henry A. Millon and Linda Nochlin, eds., Art and Architecture in the Service of Politics (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1978), pp. 188-191. The Drengenberg book includes a collection of documents relevant to the subject.

55. St. Krivtsov, "Novye pamiatniki," Iskusstvo, no. 6 [10] (1918), pp. 7-9; Lunacharskii, Vospominaniia, pp. 199, 193; Arthur Ransome, Six Weeks in Russia in 1919 (London: G. Allen & Unwin, 1919), p. 10; Lunacharskii, Vospominaniia, p. 192.

56. Ol'sen, "Otkliki," Voronezhskii telegraf, 17 May 1918, p. 3.

57. Quoted in Lunacharskii, Vospominaniia, p. 192.

58. Ibid., p. 198. The source is Tommaso Campanella, The City of the Sun, trans. Daniel I. Donno (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981).

57. Quoted in Lunacharskii, Vospominaniia, p. 192.

58. Ibid., p. 198. The source is Tommaso Campanella, The City of the Sun, trans. Daniel I. Donno (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981).

59. Thomas More, Utopia, trans. Paul Turner (London: Penguin, 1965), p. 106. The passage continues: "But anyone who deliberately tries to get himself elected to a public office is permanently disqualified from holding one."

60. David and neoclassicism were of course not the only French influence. P. Zhilin's poster for the November 7, 1918, festival, Long Live the Great Anniversary of the Proletarian Revolution. Long Live the Commune, bears a striking resemblance to Eugène Delacroix's romantic Liberty Leading the People For Zhilin's poster, see Nadezhda Suliaeva, Revoliutsionnyi prazdnichnyi plakat, 1917-1927 (Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1982).

61. Brudnyi, Obriady vchera i segodnia, p. 61.

62. Lunacharsky suggested dating the new era in Russia from the October Revolution rather than from the birth of Christ in an address to students in 1918: TsGA RSFSR, f. 2306, op. 2, d. 224, 1. 5.

63. For a discussion of Soviet holidays, see Binns, "The Changing Face of Power," Man, no. 4 (1979), pp. 586 ff.

64. "Pereimenovanie ulits," SK, 13 November 1918, p. 5. For Moscow, see "Prigotovlenie k oktiabr'skim prazdnestvam," IzvTsIK, 23 October 1918.

65. "K godovshchine revoliutsii. Otdel IZO Narkomprosa " VIMS, 20 October 1918.

66. Goriaeva, "Pervaia godovshchina," p. 126.

67. "Aviatsionnaia katastrofa," NZh, 3 May 1918, p. 3; "Katastrofa s aeroplanom," DN, 3 May 1918, p. 2. (These were both opposition newspapers.)

68. "Na otkrytii pamiatnikov," IzvTsIK, 5 November 1918, p. 5, and V. Rikhter, "Pervaia godovshchina," in Vchera i segodnia (Moscow: Khudozh. literatura, 1960), vol. 1, p. 26.

69. P. D. Mal'kov, Zapiski komendanta Moskovskogo Kremlia (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1961), pp. 134-35.

70. "Chudo na Krasnoi Ploshchadi," IzvPS, 3 May 1918, p. 4.

71. See Lane, The Rites of Rulers, or Mazaev, Prazdnik, for the application of the theory to the history of Soviet festivals. A vast Soviet literature on the subject sprang up in the 1960s and 1970s.

72. A. A. Bogdanov [Malinovskii], Pervoe maia. Mezhdunarodnyi prazdnik truda (Petrograd: G. V. Belopol'skii, 1917), p. 9.

73. "Pervoe maia 1918 goda," Pl, 12 May 1918; reprinted in Lunacharskii, Vospominaniia, p. 212.

74. D. Donskoi, "Khleba i zrelishch. K demonstratsii 1-go Maia, DN, 26 April 1918, p. 1; "Chrezvychainoe sobranie upolnomochennykh fabrik i zavodov Petrograda," DN, 30 April 1918, p. 4; Veniamin Spavskii, "Tserkov' i pervoe maia," IzvPS, 1 May 1918, p. 4; "Anarkhisty o prazdnovanii pervogo maia," IzvPS, 1 May 1918, p. 6.

75. "Petrograd," IzvTsIK, 1 May 1918.

76. Mazaev, Prazdnik, p. 248; I. Rostovtseva, "Uchastie khudozhnikov v organizatsii i provedenii prazdnovaniia 1 maia i 7 noiabria v Petrograde v 1918 g.," in AMI (1971), pp. 10-11; Nemiro, V gorod prishel prazdnik, p. 7.

77. AMI (1971), p. 39.

78. "Prigotovleniia k prazdnestvu pervogo maia," DN, 27 April 1918, p. 3.

79. "Rabochaia zhizn'," DN, 30 April 1918, p. 4, and 1 May 1918, p. 4; "Rabochie i manifestatsiia," NZh, 3 May 1918, p. 3.

80. For the fullest reports, see DN, 3 May 1918; NZh, 3 May 1918.

81. See "Obzor pechati. Posle pervogo maia," NZh, 4 May 1918, p. 1.

82. Pl, 12 May 1918.

83. "Velikaia godovshchina. Ob"iazatel'nye postanovleniia tsentral'nogo biuro po organizatsii prazdnestv godovshchiny oktiabr'skoi revoliutsii," SK, 1 November 1918, p. 4.

84. A. V. Lunacharskii, "Pervyi pervomaiskii prazdnik posle pobedy," Krasnaia niva, no. 18 (1926).

85. This battle has been well documented: see, for example, Bengt Jangfeldt, Majakovskij and Futurism, 1917-1921 (Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell, 1977), pp. 95-98.

86. "K prazdnovaniiu godovshchiny oktiabr'skoi revoliutsii," P, 1 November 1918, p. 3.

87. A. Raikhenshtein, "1 maia i 7 noiabria 1918 g. v Moskve," p. 77.

88. From the protocols of a December 10, 1918, TEO meeting. Russkiisovetskii teatr, p. 49.

89. LGAOR, f. 2551, op. 1, dd. 2250 and 2357.

90. Nemiro, V garod prishel prazdnik, p. 7.

91. "Velikaia godovshchina. Ob"iazatel'nye postanovleniia," p. 4; "Podgotovitel'nye raboty," SK, 26 October 1918.

92. "Biusty i portrety vozhdei proletariata," KG, 30 October 1918.

93. The title is abbreviated here.

94. P, 2 November 1918.

95. PP, 25 September 1918. Reprinted in Mariia Fedorovna Andreeva

Perepiska, vospominaniia. Stat'i, dokumenty, vospominaniia o M. F. Andreevoi (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1961), p. 258.

96. "Prikaz komiteta po ustroistvu oktiabr'skikh torzhestv," IzvTsIK, 5 November 1918, p. 4.

97. Rikhter, "Pervaia godovshchina," vol. 1, p. 25. I did not believe such munificence possible, but it is confirmed in P, 1 November 1918. Extravagance in a time of great deprivation was to remain a feature of Civil War holidays. An extra ration had also been distributed for May Day; yet three days later, the daily ration for all citizens was cut drastically, to one-eighth of a pound: "Moskva bez khleba," PP, 4 May 1918, p. 5.

98. AMI (1971), p. 140.

99. Quoted in Nils Ake Nilsson, "Spring 1918. The Arts and the Commissars," in Nilsson, ed., Art, Society, Revolution, p. 45.

100. Istoriko-revoliutsionnye pamiatniki SSSR (Moscow: Politizdat, 1972), pp. 5-6.

101. Iurii Annenkov, Dnevnik moikh vstrech (New York: Inter-language Literary Associates, 1966), vol. 2, p. 265. The quotation should read, "War is the locomotive of history."

102. AMI (1971) credits the work to Lentulov. S. M. Alianskii, "Vstrechi s Blokom," Novyi mir, no. 6 (1967), pp. 182-83, credits Annenkov. For a black-and-white photo, see AMI (1984), plate 133.

103. AMI (1984), plates 139-40.

104. Mark Shagal, "Pis'mo iz Vitebska," IK, 22 December 1918. Unfortunately, in his enthusiasm Chagall failed to mention what was painted. In his My Life, trans. Elisabeth Abbott (New York: Orion Press, 1960), p. 139, he mentions cows and horses; but I expect it was less the subject than the manner that raised the fuss.

105. See, for instance, Evg. Kuznetsov, "Komissar teatrov," in Andreeva, Perepiska, vospominaniia, p. 416.

106. Ia. Tugenkhol'd, Iskusstvo oktiabr'skoi epokhi (Leningrad: Academia, 1930), p. 17.

107. See AMI (1984), plates 24-35. Altman's description of his intent is to be found on pp. 64-65.

108. Semen Rodov, "Prazdnik Ery," Gorn, no. 2-3 (1919), p. 122. Rodov later gained notoriety as a critic with the "Na Postu" (On Guard) group.

109. "Ukrashenie Petrograda," ZI, 9 November 1918, p. 2. Also "K oktiabr'skim torzhestvam," ZI, 6 November 1918, p. 3; "Prazdnik oktiabr'skoi revoliutsii," IzvTsIK, 9 November 1918, p. 5; N. Barabanov, "Kartiny oktiabr'skikh prazdnestv," Vestnik zhizni, no. 3-4 (1919), pp. 116-20; ''Na Krasnoi Ploshchadi," Vestnik zhizni, no. 3-4 (1919), p. 118; Leonid Dashkov, ''Na prazdnestve revoliutsii," RM, 24 November 1918, pp. 30-33. Curiously, futurist work in Kazan also drew praise from local critics: "Proletarskii prazdnik," Znamia revoliutsii (Kazan), 10 November 1918.

110. The negative article most frequently cited is: En. K. [M. F. Andreeva], "Neudachnyi debiut," ZI, 6 March 1919. Andreeva was editor of this newspaper. The article, somewhat distorted, is attributed to her in Andreeva, Perepiska, vospominaniia, pp. 416-17. Other negative articles are: A. Evgen'ev, "Futuris-

ticheskaia gekuba i proletariat," Vestnik literatury, no. 10 (1919); V. Kriazhin, "Futurizm i revoliutsiia," Vestnik zhizni, no. 6-7 (1919); Lev Pumpianskii, "Oktiabr'skie torzhestva i khudozhniki Petrograda," Pl, 5 January 1919; E. Khersonskaia, ''Iz tovarishcheskikh besed o zhivopisi,'' Gorn, no. 2-3 (1919). However, the Pumpiansky article expresses unequivocal praise of the leftist artists. And in the Khersonskaia article no mention is made of the holiday, although the disapproval of decorated houses might be a hint. But Khersonskaia had written another article immediately following the celebration that demanded that easel painting be replaced by the decoration of buildings, which was a futurist slogan: E. Khersonskaia, "O novom tvorchestve. Iz dnevnika liubitelia iskusstv," Iskusstvo, No. 6 [10] (1918), pp. 12-13. In addition, the Gorn article was followed immediately in the same issue by the Rodov article quoted previously and by another article full of praise: N. Volkov, "Krasnaia Moskva," Gorn, no. 2-3 (1919), p. 123. The unfortunate impression one gets is that scholars have not bothered to read the articles they cite.

111. Tamara Karsavina, Theatre Street (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1931), p. 327.

112. Andreeva, Perepiska, vospominaniia, p. 416. I have seen no other report of anyone receiving such letters, nor have the letters themselves been seen.

113. AMI (1984), p. 86. The editors of the collection give the document a faulty date, following I. Matsa, Sovetskoe iskusstvo za 15 let; Materialy i dokumentatsiia (Moscow: Ogiz-Izogiz, 1933), p. 37. Matsa changed the date from February 9 to April 9, I assume to make Friche seem the aggressor and IZO the victim in the following events.

114. V. Friche, "Literaturnoe odichanie," VIMS, 15 February 1919, p. 1.

115. See, for example, "K godovshchine oktiabr'skoi revoliutsii," IzvTsIK, 6 October 1918.

116. O. D. Kameneva, "Pis'mo v redaktsiiu," VIMS, 1 March 1919, p. 3.

117. AMI (1984), p. 86.

118. "Vladimir Il'ich i ukrashenie krasnoi stolitsy," in V. D. Bonch-Bruevich, Vospominaniia o Lenine (Moscow: Nauka, 1965), pp. 380-81. How this statement squares with Krupskaia's recollection that November 7, 1918, was the happiest day of Lenin's life I do not know.

119. A. Talanov, Bol'shaia sud'ba (Moscow: Politicheskaia literatura, 1967), pp. 148-49.

120. En. K., "Neudachnyi debiut." Should there by any doubt that the campaign was a Moscow import, see an article with identical complaints and often identical wording: Mikh. Levidov, "Kto nasledniki?" Ezhenedel'nik pravdy, 2 March 1919, pp. 13-14.

121. See M. Dobuzhinskii, "Bomba ili khlopushka? Beseda dvukh khudozhnikov," NZh, 4 May 1918, p. 3; "Pervoe maia 1918 goda," DN, 3 May 1918, p. 2 (including "Den' futurizma i krasnoarmeistva").

122. Andreeva, Perepiska, vospominaniia, p. 87.

123. AMI (1971), p. 39. The decision to accept IZO's petition was reported in "V Otdele po delam iskusstva i khudozhestvennoi promyshlennosti," IK, 6 April 1919, p. 3.

124. Modernists, though, were not banned everywhere: they made impor-

tant contributions in Saratov and other cities, including Odessa, where the poet Max Voloshin and the artist Aleksandra Exter helped direct the festivities: A. Niurenberg, Vospominaniia, vstrechi, mysli ob iskusstve (Moscow: Sovetskii khudozhnik, 1969), pp. 7-8.

125. "Ukrashenie k pervomu maia," IK, 16 March 1919, p. 4, in AMI (1984).

126. "K pervomaiskim torzhestvam," VT, no. 22 (1919), pp. 3-4.

127. V. M. Friche, "Znachenie narodnykh prazdnestv," VIMS, 11 February 1919, p. 1.

128. Alexei Tolstoy, Road to Calvary, trans. Edith Bone (New York: Knopf, 1946), pp. 436-37.

1. I. I. Vasil'ev-Viaz'min, Iskusstvo liudnykh ploshchadei (Moscow: Znanie, 1977), p. 8.

2. A. V. Lunacharskii, "Budem smeiat'sia," in Lunacharskii, Stat'i o teatre i dramaturgii (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1938), pp. 164-65.

3. Fine descriptions of Russian carnival culture can be found in Nekrylova, Russkie narodnye gorodskie prazdniki, uveseleniia i zrelishcha, and AlekseevIakovlev, Russkie narodnye gulianiia . No one should miss the magical description in Alexandre Benois, Memoirs (London: Chatto & Windus, 1960), vol. 1, pp. 117-30.

4. Quoted in Dmitriev, Russkii tsirk, p. 32.

5. Adolphe L. de Custine, Journey for Our Time (Chicago: H. Regnery, 1951), p. 141. Custine noted that the equality was due to a mutual and absolute abasement before the tsar.

6. See Ivan Shcheglov, "Narodnye gulianiia v Moskve," in Shcheglov, V zashchitu narodnogo teatra (St. Petersburg: V. Kirshbaum, 1903).

7. "Khronika," ZI, 29 April 1919, p. 2.

8. Trotsky, incidentally, would eventually conceive the same notion: see "Vodka, the Church and the Cinema" (1923) in Leon Trotsky, Problems of Everyday Life, and Other Writings on Culture & Science (New York: Monad Press, 1973).

9. Aleksandr Benois, "Vykhod iskusstva na ulitsu," NZh, 4 June 1917, p. 3.

10. Protocols of the commission can be found in LGAOR, f. 2551, op. 1, dd. 2250, 2357.

11. "K sniatiiu pamiatnika Nikolaiu Nikolaevichu," ZI, 15 November 1918, p. 4.

12. See V. A. Nevskii, Massovaia politiko-prosvetitel'naia rabota revoliutsionnykh let (Moscow: Gudok, 1925), for a thorough overview of these methods, including their successes and failures.

13. VT, no. 22 (1919), p. 3, in AMI (1984), p. 93.

14. Mazaev, Prazdnik, p. 292.

15. See V. Golovasevich and V. Lashchilin, Narodnyi teatr na Donu (Rostov: Rostizdat, 1947), pp. 27-28, 55-58.

16. For descriptions, see "Sud nad Vrangelem," VT, no. 72-73 (1920), pp. 16-17; "Obzor agitatsionnogo materiala. Instsenirovka agitatsionnykh sudov," Vestnik agitatsii i propagandy, 25 November 1920, pp. 25-27; René FülöpMiller, The Mind and Face of Bolshevism (New York: Knopf, 1928), pp. 201-2 (with inaccuracies); Kerzhentsev, Tvorcheskii teatr, pp. 147-48; and Vsevolod Vishnevskii, "20-letie sovetskoi dramaturgii," Sovetskie dramaturgi o svoem tvorchestve (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1967), pp. 149-50.

17. Kerzhentsev, Tvorcheskii teatr, p. 147.

18. Rolland, Le théâtre du peuple, pp. 121-24. For the views of Gorky and Lunacharsky, see G. V. Titova, "A. V. Lunacharskii o revoliutsionno-romanticheskom teatre," in Teatr i dramaturgiia (Leningrad, 1967), or V. K. Aizenshtadt, Russkaia sovetskaia istoricheskaia dramaturgiia 1917-1929 (Kharkov: KhGIK, 1969), vol. 1, pp. 27-28.

19. A. V. Lunacharskii, "Kakaia nam nuzhna melodrama" (1919), in Lunacharskii, Sobranie sochinenii (Moscow: Khudozh. literatura, 1964), vol. 2, p. 213.

20. Russkii-sovetskii teatr, p. 359.

21. Iu. M. Lotman, "Khudozhestvennaia priroda russkikh narodnykh kartinok," in Narodnaia graviura i fol'klor v Rossii XVII-XIX vv. (Moscow: Sovetskii khudozhnik, 1976). See also Zelentsova, Narodnyi revoliutsionnyi teatr, p. 31.

22. "K oktiabr'skim torzhestvam," ZI, 5 November 1918, p. 4.

23. LGAOR, f. 2551, op. 1, d. 2246, I. 6.

24. U istokov, pp. 295-96.

25. See "M. Gorkii o kinematografe," VT, no. 30 (1919), p. 10, for the original idea.

26. Iu. A. Dmitriev, Sovetskii tsirk (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1963), p. 24.

27. Shklovskii, "Iskusstvo tsirk," in Shklovskii, Khod konia, p. 138.

28. For Lunacharsky's views on the conversion of the circus to the new order, see "Zadachi obnovlennogo tsirka" (1919) in A. V. Lunacharskii, O massovykh prazdnestvakh, estrade i tsirke (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1981).

29. Dmitriev, Sovetskii tsirk, p. 33.

30. Text translated in Frantishek Déak, "The Agit-Prop and Circus Plays of Vladimir Mayakovsky," Drama Review 17, no. 1 (March 1973). Something similar had already been done under different circumstances in the United States: see MacKaye, The Civic Theatre, p. 71.

31. For the best descriptions, see Annenkov, Dnevnik moikh vstrech, vol. 2, pp. 449-55; Shklovskii, "Dopolnennyi Tolstoi," in Shklovskii, Khod konia; and Zolotnitskii, Zori teatral'nogo oktiabria, pp. 234-39.

32. N. N[osko]v, "Pervyi vinokur," ZI, 24 September 1919, p. 1.

33. Shklovskii, "Dopolnennyi Tolstoi," p. 127.

34. Iu. Annenkov, "Krizis èstrady," ZI, 3-4 July 1920, in Zolotnitskii, Zori teatral'nogo oktiabria, p. 236. The influence on Eisenstein and his "montage of attractions" would be apparent in a few years.

35. "Vozrozhdenie tsirka," VT, no. 9 (1919), pp. 4-5.

36. "Tsirk," VT, no. 39 (1919), p. 13.

37. Dmitriev, Russkii tsirk, p. 194.

38. TsGALI, f. 2087, op. 1, d. 80, 1. 98.

39. E. M. Kuznetsov, Arena i liudi sovetskogo tsirka (Leningrad: Iskusstvo, 1947), p. 32.

40. "Vtoroi gos. tsirk," VT, no. 44 (1919), p. 7.

41. "Konenkov dlia tsirka," VT, no. 44 (1919), pp. 6-7.

42. The figure had been used effectively in posters of the 1905 and 1917 revolutions: Lapshin, Khudozhestvennaia zhizn', pp. 89, 105. And in 1930 Mayakovsky would write a scenario for another circus performance, Moscow Afire, using the same formation.

43. "Pervyi gos. tsirk," VT, no. 42 (1919), p. 10.

44. D. Samarskii, Nastrazhe mirovoi kommuny (Rostov: Gosizdat, 1920), p. 5.

45. A tiny theater whose repertory ran to pre-nineteenth-century farces and commedia dell'arte interludes: Cervantes's The Rival Ladies, Franz Pocci's Crocodile and Persia, Machiavelli's Mandragola . See "Moskovskii Balagan," VT, no. 8 (1919), p. 6.

46. "K pervomaiskim torzhestvam," VT, no. 22 (1919), pp. 3-4, in AMI (1984).

47. Vadim Shershenevich, "Tsirk," Zrelishcha, no. 2 (1922), p. 15. See also Boris Erdman, "Nepovtorimoe vremia," Tsirk i estrada, no. 3-4 (1928), pp. 6-8, 8, or A. V. Lunacharskii, "O tsirkakh," in Lunacharskii, Star'i, pp. 170-72.

48. Historians have ignored Gaideburov's contributions. Unfortunately, the main source for all work on early Soviet festivals has been Piotrovsky, scholar at GIII through the 1920s and 1930s, director of various theaters, and administrator of the Politprosvet theater network. Piotrovsky, who was a brilliant and productive critic, carried something of a vendetta against Gaideburov, partly for ideological reasons, partly for personal reasons. On top of his historiographical elisions, Piotrovsky never hesitated to slander Gaideburov directly: see Istoriia sovetskogo teatra, pp. 159-68; A. P[iotrovskii], "Akademicheskii teatr intelligentsii," ZI, 20 December 1921, p. 4; "Dovol'no Peredvizhnogo," ZI, no. 23 (1923). From his administrative position, Piotrovsky twice succeeded in appropriating the Mobile-Popular Theater's building, the final time when he handed it over to TRAM (Theater of Worker Youth), of which he was administrative patron.

49. This approach was most closely associated with Ivan Shcheglov—for example, "O repertuare narodnogo teatra," in Shcheglov, V zashchitu narodnogo teatra .

50. P. P. Gaideburov, "Novye zadachi teatral'nogo instruktorstva," VO, no. 2-3 (1919), p. 20.

51. Repertory listings can be found in the appendices of an excellent study: Gaideburov, Literaturnoe nasledie .

52. G. A. Khaichenko, Russkii narodnyi teatr kontsa XIX-nachala XX veka (Moscow: Nauka, 1975), p. 165.

53. P. P. Gaideburov, "Vsenarodnyi teatr," in Konst. Erberg, ed., Iskusstvo i narod (Petrograd: Kolos, 1922).

54. "Nashim budushchim zriteliam" (1918), in Gaideburov, Literaturnoe nasledie, p. 224.

55. P. P. Gaideburov, "Novye metody teatral'nogo instruktorstva," VO, no. 4-5 (1919), p. 6.

56. P. P. Gaideburov, "Pis'mo k zriteliu. Bez zaglaviia," ZPOT, no. 17 (1919), p. 6. Note the reliance on Ivanov's terminology.

57. Osip Mandelstam provides an ironic description in The Noise of Time, in The Prose of Osip Mandelstam, trans. Clarence Brown (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1965), pp. 98-99.

58. The line is originally from Plutarch and was probably passed on to the Russians by Nietzsche. My description is based mostly on Gaideburov's account in Literaturnoe nasledie, pp. 238-39.

59. Istoriia sovetskogo teatra, p. 166.

60. Gaideburov, "Novye zadachi," pp. 20-23.

61. "Poezdka v Vitebsk," ZPOT, no. 20 (1919), p. 9.

62. Gaideburov, "Novye zadachi."

63. P. P. Gaideburov, "Tvorcheskaia igra. Improvizatsionnyi metod N. F. Skarskoi," VO, no. 6-8 (1919), pp. 36-40.

64. A complete course list can be found in "V Institute vneshkol'nogo obrazovaniia," ZPOT, no. 24-25 (1919), p. 18.

65. Again, if history has been recorded differently, Piotrovsky and his assistant Avlov (a former lawyer) are at fault. In many publications they propagated the idea that Gaideburov was responsible for the kulturträger, or anti-amateur, method of instruction: for example, G. Avlov, Klubnyi samodeiatel'nyi teatr: Evoliutsia metodov i form, introduction by A. V. Piotrovskii (Leningrad: Teakinopechat', 1930).

66. A. Mashirov-Samobytnik, "Istoriia Proletkul'ta (1905-1917)," Voprosy literatury, no. 1 (1958), pp. 172-76.

67. See S. V. Panina, "Na Peterburgskoi okraine," Novyi zhurnal, no. 48-49 (1957).

68. Gaideburov, "Pis'mo k zriteliu," pp. 3-6.

69. See Vinogradov-Mamont, Krasnoarmeiskoe chudo, p. 5.

70. Ibid., pp. 13-14.

69. See Vinogradov-Mamont, Krasnoarmeiskoe chudo, p. 5.

70. Ibid., pp. 13-14.

71. Gaideburov, "Novye zadachi," pp. 22-23.

72. Histories of the group can be found in Vinogradov-Mamont, Krasnoarmeiskoe chudo, and in Istoriia sovetskogo teatra, pp. 244-50.

73. Fedor Dostoevskii, Zapiski iz mertvogo doma, in Polnoe sobranie sochinenii (Leningrad: Nauka, 1972), vol. 4, pp. 118-19.

74. English readers can find a good description in Elizabeth Warner, The Russian Folk Theatre (The Hague: Mouton, 1977), pp. 127-40.

75. See V. Krupianskaia, "Narodnaia drama (genezis i literaturnaia istoriia)," in Slavianskii fol'klor (Moscow: Nauka, 1972).

76. Original accounts can be found in Istoriia sovetskogo teatra, pp. 244-46; Massovye prazdnestva, pp. 57-60; Vinogradov-Mamont, Krasnoarmeiskoe chudo, pp. 26-30; "Pervyi spektakl' dramaticheskoi masterskoi Krasnoi Armii," IK, 30 March 1919, p. 4; and "Peterburgskie pis'ma," VT, no. 43 (1919), p. 13.

77. The French scholar Nina Gourfinkel called it a jeu: see Nina Gourfinkel, Théâtre russe contemporain (Paris: La Renaissance du Livre, 1931), p. 129.

78. Istoriia sovetskogo teatra, p. 246. The reader may feel free to doubt this figure, which is given by many sources but seems unlikely.

79. Vinogradov-Mamont, Krasnoarmeiskoe chudo, p. 22.

80. I have yet to fathom how the seats were arranged. Descriptions suggest that seats faced one of the stages; but that would have forced spectators to constantly swivel back and forth.

81. Vinogradov-Mamont, Krasnoarmeiskoe chudo, p. 68.

82. Massovye prazdnestva, p. 59.

83. Original accounts can be found in Vinogradov-Mamont, Krasnoarmeiskoe chudo, pp. 104-12; "Tret'ii internatsional," ZI, 9 May 1919, p. 2; and B. N[ikono]v, "Pod otkrytym nebom," ZI, 14 May 1919, p. 1.

84. The obvious precedent was Ivanov's tragedy Prometheus, written in 1916 but published only in 1919. Although The Russian Prometheus ( Rossiiskii Prometei ) was given wide manuscript circulation, the only text I know of is in TsGALI, f. 2640, op. 1, d. 147. For Vinogradov's vision of "the theater of the future," as declared to Chaliapin, Iurev, Radlov, Petrov-Vodkin, and Aleksei Remizov, see "Khronika," VT, no. 43 (1919), p. 14. This vision also reflected Ivanov's influence.

85. Vinogradov-Mamont, Rossiiskii Prometei, p. 7.

86. It was scheduled for performance on the November 1919 anniversary: "K oktiabr'skim torzhestvam," VT, no. 36 (1919), p. 13.

87. Aleksei Remizov, "Repertuar. III," ZI, 5 February 1920, p. 1; Blokovskii sbornik, vol. 1, p. 336.

88. V. I. Lenin and A. V. Lunacharskii, Perepiska, doklady, dokumenty, literaturnoe nasledstvo, no. 80 (Moscow: Nauka, 1971), pp. 383-85.

89. "Khronika," ZI, 17 August 1920, p. 1.

90. "Sverzhenie samoderzhaviia," Izvestiia arkhangel'skogo gubernskogo revkoma, 4 May 1920, p. 3.

91. A. Panfilov, Teatral'noe iskusstvo Urala 1917-1967 (Sverdlovsk: Sredneural'skoe knizhnoe izd., 1967), pp. 34-36.

92. Istoriia sovetskogo teatra, p. 250.

93. See U istokov, pp. 41-46. To my knowledge, this is one of the few examples of direct political interference in Civil War mass spectacles; and it might have been added to Shcheglov's recollections to meet the political demands of later times.

94. Ibid., pp. 43-45.

93. See U istokov, pp. 41-46. To my knowledge, this is one of the few examples of direct political interference in Civil War mass spectacles; and it might have been added to Shcheglov's recollections to meet the political demands of later times.

94. Ibid., pp. 43-45.

95. Vinogradov implies that Piotrovsky removed him from the post by false denunciation: Vinogradov-Mamont, Krasnoarmeiskoe chudo, pp. 126-28. Shcheglov just about confirms it: U istokov, p. 53. In ZI, no. 199-200 (1919), Piotrovsky wrote a strong article against Vinogradov's production of Overthrow ( Istoriia sovetskogo teatra, p. 250). Although these actions would be in line with Piotrovsky's later behavior, it should be noted that weeks after Vinogradov had departed newspapers reported that Piotrovsky was still not part of the studio: "Khronika," ZI, 21 November 1919, p. 2.

96. Accounts in Kerzhentsev, Tvorcheskii teatr, pp. 124-25; U istokov, pp.

66-68; "V Proletkul'te," ZI, 28 November 1919, p. 1; "Khronika," ZI, 18 December 1919, p. 3; "V Peterburgskom Proletkul'te," VT, no. 56 (1920), p. 15. The final episode, The December Days in Moscow, was also performed separately: "Instsenirovka dekabr'skogo vosstaniia," PP, 18 January 1920, p. 3.

97. For his teaching methods, see D. Shcheglov, "Praktika teatral'nogo dela," VO, no. 6-8 (1919), pp. 43-45.

98. The text is in D. Shcheglov, Spektakl' v klube (Leningrad: Nachatki znanii, 1925), pp. 81-101. The fact that Shcheglov claims authorship suggests the performance was not as "collective" as claimed.

99. Firsthand accounts can be found in Istoriia sovetskogo teatra, pp. 247-48; Massovye prazdnestva, pp. 60-61; "Tsirk Chinizelli," IzvPS, , 24 February 1920, p. 1; "Khronika," ZI, 26 February 1920, p. 3; E. Kuznetsov, "Peterburgskie pis'ma," VT, no. 56 (1920), p. 15.

100. Tamashin, Sovetskaia dramaturgiia, p. 45.

1. PP, 1 January 1920, pp. 3-4.

2. Quoted in M. Z[agorskii], "V sporakh o sovremennom i griadushchem teatre. Na mitinge iskusstv v tsirke," VT, no. 48 (1920), pp. 9-10. For a deeper criticism of the deistvo theory, see Aleksandr Tairov, Notes of a Director, trans. William Kuhlke (Coral Gables, Fla.: University of Miami Press, 1969), pp. 132-42.

3. A. V. Lunacharskii, "O narodnykh prazdnestvakh," VT, no. 62 (1920), p. 4.

4. A good summary of the congress can be found in Joachim Paech, Das Theater der Russischen Revolution (Kronberg Ts.: Scriptor Verlag, 1974), pp. 95 ff.

5. V. B[ebutov], "O neoutopizme," VT, no. 43 (1919), p. 7.

6. Viacheslav Ivanov, "Organizatsiia tvorcheskikh sil narodnogo kollektiva v oblasti khudozhestvennogo deistva," VT, no. 44 (1919), p. 3. The resolutions passed by the congress after his address can be found in TsGA RSFSR, f. 628, op. 1, ed. khr. 4, 1. 112. For the original speech, see Viacheslav Ivanov, "K voprosu ob organizatsii tvorcheskikh sil narodnogo kollektiva v oblasti khudozhestvennogo deistva," VT, no. 26 (1919), p. 4.

7. M. Ch., "Gorodskoe soveshchanie po voprosu o raboche-krest'ianskom teatre," ZI, 3 April 1919, p. 1. The quote is from an earlier version of the speech.

8. V. Tikhonovich, "Teatr i estetizatsiia zhizni. II," VT, no. 47 (1919), pp. 4-5.

9. TsGA RSFSR, f. 628, op. 1, ed. khr. 4.

10. See TsGA RSFSR, f. 628, op. 1, ed. khr. 4; "Ot slov k delu," VT, no. 37 (1919), p. 5. A member of the section claimed that practical work was undertaken for the November 1919 holiday; but a lack of supporting evidence makes

this claim seem doubtful: see Nik. Lvov, "Istoriia pervogo sotsialisticheskogo stsenariia," VT, no. 62 (1920), p. 6.

11. "Sektsiia massovykh predstavlenii i zrelishch," VT, No. 47 (1919), p. 6. Lvov is something of an enigma; in 1919 he was writing articles as an experienced folk-theater scholar of the Veselovsky school: see Nikolai Lvov, "Narodnye igrishcha v Viatskoi gubernii," VT, no. 38 (1919); yet in the 1920s, he was a young enthusiast of mass festivals associated with Communist youth and leftist artistic circles.

12. Doklad fraktsionnyi," in TsGA RSFSR, f. 628, op. 1, ed. khr. 4, ll. 94-95.

13. "Vozzvanie sektsii massovykh predstavlenii zrelishch . . . o sozdanii massovykh narodnykh teatrov," reprinted in Russkii-sovetskii teatr, pp. 64-65, from VT, no. 50 (1920).

14. An anthology of articles that resulted from these meetings can be found in Organizatsiia massovykh narodnykh prazdnestv (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1921). The articles also appeared in various issues of Vestnik teatra .

15. "Plan pervogo narodnogo deistva-prazdnestva," VT, no. 46 (1919), p. 5.

16. See Victor Turner, The Anthropology of Performance (New York: DAJ Publications, 1986), Dramas, Fields and Metaphors (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1974), and The Ritual Process (Chicago: Aldine, 1969); Terry Castle, Masquerade and Civilization: The Carnivalesque in Eighteenth-Century English Culture and Fiction (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1986); Victor Turner, ed., Celebration: Studies in Festivity and Ritual (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institute Press, 1982); Clifford Geertz, Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1980); Michel Benamou and Charles Carmello, eds., Performance in Postmodern Society (Milwaukee: Center for Twentieth-Century Studies, 1977); John J. MacAloon, ed., Rite, Drama, Festival, Spectacle (Philadelphia: ISHI, 1984); and Richard Schechner, Between Theater and Anthropology (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1985).

17. See in particular Hobsbawm and Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition; Ben-David and Clark, eds., Culture and Its Creators, and Wilentz, ed., Rites of Power .

18. See Geertz's critique in "Blurred Genres: The Refiguration of Social Thought," in Clifford Geertz, Local Knowledge (New York: Basic Books, 1983).

19. A secondhand account from Kerzhentsev, Tvorcheskii teatr, pp. 148-49. Firsthand accounts of the ceremonies can be found in Dm. Tolbuzin [its director], "Apofeoz truda. Opyt massovogo deistva," VT, no. 66 (1920), p. 16; and Svetlov, "U ploshchadki. Apofeoz truda," Kommuna (Samara), 5 May 1920, p. 2.

20. Arthur Holitscher, Das Theater im revolutionären Russland (Berlin: Volksbühnen Verlags, 1924), p. 23.

21. See, for example, Teatr; Ivanov, Po zvezdam; Adrian Piotrovskii, "Prazdnestva kommuny," PP, 17 February 1920, p. 1; Vsevolod Vsevolodskii-Gerngross, "Deistvennoe iskusstvo," ZI, 11 March 1920, p. 2.

22. Kerzhentsev, Revoliutsiia i teatr, pp. 43-44.

23. I. I. Schneider, Isadora Duncan, the Russian Years (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1968), pp. 11-13.

24. As recorded in Kerzhentsev, Tvorcheskii teatr, pp. 151-52. Another version of the plan is to be found in "Plan pervogo narodnogo deistva-prazdnestva."

25. The point has been made most forcefully about the Bolsheviks by Kenez, The Birth of the Propaganda State, pp. 1-3.

26. Lvov, "Istoriia pervogo sotsialisticheskogo stsenariia," p. 7.

27. Years later, Shklovsky was still chuckling over this episode: see Viktor Shklovsky, Mayakovsky and His Circle, trans. Lily Feiler (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1972), pp. 169-70.

28. Lvov, "Istoriia pervogo sotsialisticheskogo stsenariia," p. 7. Meyerhold would try this in some of his later productions, in Verhaeren's Les aubes and a 1921 production of Mystery-Bouffe . The practice, incidentally, was common in nineteenth-century European commercial theater and was standard in Russian balagans .

29. This schema is taken from Roger Caillois, Man, Play and Games, trans. Meyer Barash (New York: Free Press, 1961). The role of play in culture, first recognized by Schiller, is not a matter of common agreement. Useful approaches come from many sources: Johann Huizinga, Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play-Element in Culture, trans. R.F.C. Hull (Boston: Beacon Press, 1949), demonstrated that play was a creator of culture; game playing has been placed in the context of cultural performance by John J. MacAloon, "Olympic Games and the Theory of Spectacle in Modern Societies," in MacAloon, ed., Rite, Drama, Festival, Spectacle, and "Sociation and Sociability in Political Celebrations," in Turner, ed., Celebration . Perhaps the most important contribution has been by Erving Goffmann, Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974), who describes social interaction by an analogy to games and theater.

30. See Evreinov, The Theatre in Life .

31. Sometimes translated as The Chief Thing . In Life as Theater: Five Modern Plays (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Ardis, 1973).

32. Firsthand accounts are in Istoriia sovetskogo teatra, p. 278; A. I. Piotrovskii, Za sovetskii teatr (Leningrad: Academia, 1925), p. 14; U istokov, pp. 87-89; and Ia. Pushchin, "Opyt teatralizatsii voennogo manevra," ZI, 26 August 1920, in Russkii-sovetskii teatr, pp. 271-72. A complete scenario is in A. I. Piotrovskii, ed., Krasnoarmeiskii teatr (Petrograd: Izd. Uprav. Petro. Voen. Okr., 1921), pp. 25-26. I have a suspicion that the Pushchin article was written by Piotrovsky. Dmitry Shcheglov in his memoirs ( U istokov, pp. 87-89) claims that he was the director; because both he and Piotrovsky never hesitate to slander an old colleague, I cannot be sure which claim is correct. The production itself bears all the marks of Piotrovsky's thinking however.

33. Russkii-sovetskii teatr, p. 271.

34. Aleksei Gan, "Bor'ba za massovoe deistvo," O teatre (Tver: Tverskoe izd., 1922), p. 74.

35. Aleksei Gan, "Nasha bor'ba," VT, no. 67 (1920), pp. 1-2.

36. Aleksei Gan, Konstruktivizm (Tver: Tverskoe izd., 1922), p. 1.

37. For a superb history of the movement, see Christina Lodder, Russian

Constructivism (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1983). Lodder dates the genesis of constructivism to mid-1921.

38. There are many sources for Gan's plan: Kerzhentsev, Tvorcheskii teatr, pp. 152-53; Lvov, "Istoriia pervogo sotsialisticheskogo stsenariia"; "Plan prazdnestva pervogo maia," VT, no. 51 (1920), also in AMI (1984), pp. 101-2; "Pervoe maia. K otchetu sektsii," VT, no. 67 (1920), pp. 13-15; and "Plan prazdnovaniia pervogo maia," ZI, 24 February 1920, p. 3.

39. AMI (1984), pp. 101-2. This "revolutionary" plan sounds suspiciously similar to one used in Voronezh for the November 7, 1918, celebration: see "V provintsii," IzvTsIK, 26 October 1918.

40. William Morris, News from Nowhere (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1966); Gastev cited in Stites, Revolutionary Dreams, p. 150; Lunacharskii, "O narodnykh prazdnestvakh." The idea rests on Bogdanov's aesthetics; and its influence can be seen in some of Trotsky's writings.

41. Ia. Shapirshtein (Lers), "Nashi prazdnestva," VT, No. 72-73 (1920), p. 2.

42. See P. Kogan, "Kak organizovat' sorevnovanie mezhdu rabotaiushchimi. Udarnye gruppy truda. Ispol'zovanie sistemy Teilora," PP, 7 April 1920, p. 3.

43. See Lev Sosnovskii, "Master Kliuev. K voprosu o proizvodstvennoi propagande," P, 24 October 1920, p. 1, and "Ob odnom iz sposobov agitatsii," P, 25 November 1920, p. 1.

44. Relevant documents have been collected in U istokov kommunisticheskogo truda (Moscow: Izd. sotsial'no-èkonomicheskoi literatury, 1959) and Krasnyi arkhiv, no. 82 (1937), pp. 18-40.

45. N. Lenin, "Velikii pochin. O geroizme rabochikh v tylu. Po povodu 'kommunisticheskikh subbotnikov,'" P, 28 June 1919.

46. See, for example, R. Arskii, "Nedel'nyi subbotnik," IzvTsIK, 21 January 1920, p. 4.

47. "Kommunisticheskie subbotniki," IzvTsIK, 11 September 1920, p. 2. In the Soviet and Western literature on subbotniki, the notion that most participants were Communists has shown great longevity. This misplaced faith in party workers can be based on only a few sources, most outstandingly V. M. Molotov, ed., Pervomaiskii sbornik (Nizhny Novgorod: Nizhegorodskii gub. komitet organizatsii truda, 1920). The claim is discredited by the statistics published in Pravda and Izvestiia throughout 1920.

48. "O subbotnikakh v derevne," P, 4 January 1920, p. 1.

49. G. Prozorov, "Detskie kommunisticheskie subbotniki," P, 28 February 1920, p. 2.

50. At least; I stopped counting in June. See Izvestiia Odesskogo soveta for that period.

51. Attested to by foreigners both for and against the Soviet regime. See Arthur Holitscher, Drei Monate in Sowyet Russland (Berlin: S. Fischer, 1921), pp. 48-59; or Alexander Berkman, The Bolshevik Myth (New York: Boni and Liveright, 1925), p. 130. Emma Goldman, however, saw no joy at the same subbotnik attended by Berkman: Emma Goldman, My Disillusionment in Russia

(New York: Doubleday, Page, 1923), p. 75. Furthermore, the Petrograd press reported that underground literature against subbotniki was published by Moscow workers: ''Obshchaia kartina pervomaiskikh torzhestv v Moskve,'' IzvPS, 3 May 1920, p. 1. The Moscow papers made no such report.

52. See Ozouf, Festivals and the French Revolution, p. 45.

53. Directed by N. N. Arvatov, director of Tsar Iudeiskii . Descriptions of the entertainments can be found in Massovye prazdnestva, pp. 70-71; "Zrelishcha pervogo maia," ZI, 20 April 1920, p. 1; also, ZI, 1-3 May 1920, p. 1.

54. For the Mensheviks, see "Novoe pervoe maia"; for the Bolsheviks, L. Trotskii, "Trud i voina," and N. Bukharin, "Prazdnik ili budni"—all on the front page of P, 1 May 1920.

55. To those who resented the work, it was useless. There was a funny story going around about a group of Communists who spent an entire subbotnik transferring manure from one pile to another. K. Dagel', "Sizifov trud. K vcherashnemu subbotniku," PP, 4 April 1920, p. 3.

56. K. Shelavin, Pervoe maia v Rossii (Leningrad: Priboi, 1926), pp. 65-67, mentions 165,000 in Petrograd, 350,000 in Moscow, which were huge figures in those days.

57. This became one of the canonical moments of the Lenin cult. It was first reported by L. Sosnovskii, "V Kremle," P, 4 May 1920, p. 2. The officially preferred version was Bonch-Bruevich, Vospominaniia o Lenine, pp. 249-50. This, the first labor of Lenin, became a popular subject of Soviet painters—for example, M. G. Sokolov's V. I. Lenin at the Subbotnik and P. Vasiliev's work of the same title. Authorities also made sure that the "spontaneous event" was recorded on film: see A. Levitskii, Rasskazy o kinematografe (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1964), pp. 194-95. That the incident penetrated the popular consciousness is shown by the large number of jokes about it—most of them involving an inflatable log.

58. A. Kollantai, "Novye zadachi pervogo maia," P, 1 May 1920, p. 2.

59. Aksenov, Organizatsiia, p. 62; I. A. Aksenov, "Teatr v doroge," in O teatre, p. 85.

60. M. Gor'kii, "Put' k shchastiiu," P, 1 May 1920, p. 1.

61. Velimir Khlebnikov, Sobranie proizvedenii (Leningrad: Izd. pisatelei, 1928), vol. 3, p. 53.

62. N. K., "K prazdnovaniiu pervogo maia," PP, 25 April 1920, p. 1.

63. Massovye prazdnestva, p. 74.

64. Strigalev, "M. V. Dobuzhinskii v revoliutsionnye gody," p. 252.

65. Gan, "Bor'ba za massovoe deistvo," p. 79.

66. Aksenov, Organizatsiia, p. 63.

67. Adrian Piotrovskii, "Imeniny truda," ZI, 1-3 May 1920, p. 1.

68. Gourfinkel, Théâtre russe contemporain, p. 139.

69. Pervoe maia (Leningrad: Izd. Redizdata Puokra, 1924), p. 24.

70. Unfortunately Tiomkin decided to erase the Soviet period from his autobiography, Please Don't Hate Me . As organizer of some of the most magnificent festivals, he surely would have been a fine source of information and had much to be proud of.

71. "Khronika," ZI, 21 April 1920, p. 1.

72. The following description is drawn from these firsthand accounts: Istoriia sovetskogo teatra, pp. 269-71; Piotrovskii, Za sovetskii teatr, pp. 10-12; Russkii-sovetskii teatr, p. 265; Berkman, The Bolshevik Myth, pp. 131-32; E. A. Znosko-Borovskii, Russkii teatr nachala XX veka (Prague: Plamia, 1925), pp. 427-30; V. Kerzhentsev, "Massovyi teatr," VT, no. 65 (1920), pp. 3-4 (reprinted with confused title in AMI (1984), pp. 109-10); Aleksandr Belenson, "Birzhevye vpechatleniia," ZI, 4 May 1920, p. 1; Viktor Shklovskii, ''O gromkom golose,'' ZI, 8-9 May 1920, p. 2, in Shklovskii, Khod konia .

73. Kerzhentsev, Tvorcheskii teatr, pp. 136-37. Other scenarios (all with some variations) can be found in Fülöp-Miller, The Mind and Face of Bolshevism, pp. 205-8; Russkii-sovetskii teatr, pp. 263-64; and "Gimn osvobozhdeniia truda," IzvPS, 30 April 1920, p. 1.

74. Richard Stites has noted that festivals were prominent in Russian socialist utopian fiction (they were an embodiment of the ideal city); Stites, Revolutionary Dreams, pp. 183-84.

75. Obviously, the Khodynka tragedy of 1896 was still very much in mind. "K ustroistvu spektaklia-pantomimy," IzvPS, 24 April 1920, p. 1.

76. Kerzhentsev, "Massovyi teatr."

77. "Pervomaiskaia misteriia—Gimn osvobozhdeniia truda," IzvPS, 3 May 1920, p. 2.

78. The scenarios are in Russkii-sovetskii teatr, and Kerzhentsev, Tvorcheskii teatr, respectively.

79. A. Kugel, "Massovki," Iskusstvo trudiashchimsia, no. 1 (1924), pp. 13-15.

80. A favorable opinion was expressed by G[rigory] Zinoviev, "Novoe v nashem pervomaiskom prazdnestve," P, 5 May 1920, p. 1; the winter plans were announced in "Khronika," ZI, 12 May 1920, p. 1.

81. Istoriia sovetskogo teatra, p. 271.

82. P., "Sueslovie," ZI, 18 May 1920, p. 4.

83. Shklovskii, "O gromkom golose."

84. From a letter quoted by Evgenii Kuznetsov, "Da zdravstvuet professionalizm!" ZI, 15-16 May 1920, p. 1.

85. Clearly, "amateurs" could replace "theater circles"; but because of the use of the term amateur by the Adult Education Department, it had negative ideological connotations with radicals.

86. Adr. Piotrovskii, "Teatr vsego naroda. Teatral'nyi kruzhok," ZI, 20-21 May 1920, p. 1.

87. Evgenii Kuznetsov, "Armianskaia zagadka," ZI, 5 May 1920, p. 1.

88. Konst. Derzhavin, "Moskovskie otkliki," ZI, 30 April 1920, p. 1.

89. Viktor Shklovskii, "O psikhologicheskoi rampe," ZI, 7 May 1920, p. 1; also in Shklovskii, Khod konia .

90. Evgenii Kuznetsov, "Da zdravstvuet professionalizm. Okanchanie," ZI, 18 May 1920, p. 1.

91. Sergei Radlov, "Massovye postanovki," in Radlov, Stat'i o teatre (Petrograd: Mysl', 1923), p. 41.

92. This interesting fact is brought up in S. L. Tsimbal's introduction to

Adrian Piotrovskii, Teatr. Kino. Zhizn', ed. A. Ia. Trabskii (Leningrad: Iskusstvo, 1969), pp. 6-7.

93. As far as I know, the play, which judging by reviews was one of Gumilev's best, has been lost. It was to be printed in the fourth issue (1920) of Igra, which I do not believe ever made it to press. Descriptions can be found in A. L[evinso]n, "Derevo prevrashcheniia," ZI, 8 February 1919, p. 1; [P. Morozov], "N. Gumilev. 'Derevo prevrashcheniia.' P'esa dlia detei," 23 September 1918, LGAOR, f. 2551, op. 17, d. 4, l. 151.

94. LGAOR, f. 2551, op. 1, d. 2391, l. 41. See also "Teatr-Studiia," ZI, 16 November 1918, p. 4.

95. Sergei Radlov, "Teatr vozrozhdeniia i vozrozhdenie teatra," ZI, 12 November 1920, p. 1.

96. LGAOR, f. 2551, op. 1, d. 2137, ll. 3-11; also Istoriia sovetskogo teatra, pp. 268-69.

97. Gorchakov, The Theater in Soviet Russia, p. 131; on this play, and on the Popular Comedy in general, see Zolotnitskii, Zori teatral'nogo oktiabria, p. 249.

98. Konst. Derzhavin, "Iskusstvo tsirka v stsenicheskoi kompozitsii," ZI, 1 April 1920, p. 2; see also his "Akter i tsirk," ZI, 30 March 1920, pp. 1-2.

99. "Vindzorskie prokaznitsy," ZI, 12 November 1920, p. 1.

100. Radlov, Stat'i o teatre, pp. 39-44.

101. Evgenii Kuznetsov, "Po povodu," ZI, 17 June 1920, p. 1.

102. Emma Goldman, My Disillusionment in Russia, pp. 67-73.

103. Adrian Piotrovskii, "Ostrov chudes," ZI, 22 June 1920, in Piotrovskii, Za sovetskii teatr, p. 21.

104. N. Kuzmin, "Velikoe nachalo," PP, 20 June 1920, p. 2.

105. Piotrovskii, "Ostrov chudes," p. 22.

106. Described in H. G. Wells, Russia in the Shadows (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1920), pp. 128-31.

107. Khodasevich, "Gorod—teatr," p. 34.

108. Firsthand sources for the following description are: Istoriia sovetskogo teatra, pp. 282-86; Massovye prazdnestva, pp. 63-64; Piotrovskii, "Ostrov chudes"; Andreeva, Perepiska, vospominaniia, pp. 418-19; Khodasevich, "Massovye deistva, zrelishcha i prazdniki," pp. 12-13; Khodasevich, ''Gorod—teatr"; M., ''Pervyi amfiteatr," ZI, 19-20 June 1920, p. 1; Aleksandr Belenson, "Dva giganta," ZI, 23 June 1920; Ievgeny Kuznetsov, "Pod otkrytym nebom. Peterburgskie massovye postanovki," VT, no. 71 (1920), in Russkii-sovetskii teatr, pp. 266-68; and Alekseev-Iakovlev, Russkie narodnye gulianiia . Mazaev, Prazdnik, pp. 306-11, although not firsthand, is a fine description.

109. Mazaev, Prazdnik, p. 308, following Piotrovsky, believes this is a specific feature of "holiday" theater. However, it should be remembered that it was in Renaissance festivals—another form of holiday theater—that "illusionary" state designs were first developed.

110. See, for example, "Speshi pana pokrepche vzdut'!", Vlad. Maiakovskii, "ROSTA Window no. 336," Dmitrii Moor, "Krasnyi podarok belomu panu," in German, ed., Serdtsem, plates 30, 31, 61. The clichés predated the Revolution by at least a half century.

1. Edward Shils, "The Center and Periphery," in his Center and Periphery: Essays in Macrosociology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975), pp. 3-6.

2. Clifford Geertz, "Centers, Kings and Charisma," in Ben-David and Clark, eds., Culture and Its Creators, p. 13.

3. Richard Wortman, "Moscow and Petersburg," in Wilentz, ed., Rites of Power, pp. 244-76.

4. See, for instance, his critique of Claude Lévi-Strauss in Jacques Derrida, Writing and Difference, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), or his Of Grammatology, trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976).

5. James W. Hulse, The Forming of the Communist International (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1964), p. 35.

6. "Prazdnovanie dnia konstitutsii v Moskve i peredachi znameni Parizhskikh kommunarov," Leningradskaia pravda, 8 July 1924, p. 2. "Holy relic" was Zinoviev's phrasing.

7. Günter Nollau, International Communism and World Revolution (New York: Praeger, 1961), p. 44.

8. See Robert Lee Wolff, "The Three Romes: The Migration of an Ideology and the Making of an Autocrat," in Henry A. Murray, ed., Myth and Mythmaking (Boston: Beacon Press, 1960).

9. J. T. Murphy, New Horizons (London: Bodley Head, 1942), p. 139. See also Morris Gordin, Utopia in Chains (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1926), pp. 89-94.

10. John Reed, "Soviet Russia Now," Liberator, December 1920, p. 9.

11. The Communist International (Petrograd, 1 May 1919). Available also in Russian, German, and French.

12. German, ed., Serdtsem, plates 70, 351.

13. Vladimir Narbut, "Eshche ne vremia . . ." Izvestiia Odesskogo soveta, 23 June 1920, p. 1.

14. For descriptions of the demonstrations, see Angelica Balabanoff, My Life as a Rebel (New York: Harper, 1938), pp. 258-62; and Mrs. Philip Snowden, Through Bolshevik Russia (London: Cassell, 1920), pp. 65 ff. A pictorial record of the festival, with the gaiety of the crowd highly exaggerated, is Boris Kustodiev's painting Prazdnik v chest' otkrytiia II kongressa Kominterna . The preliminary sketches for this painting show little such enthusiasm: AMI (1984), plate 192.

15. N. Strelnikov, "Giganty," ZI, 21 July 1920, p. 1; "Krasnaia Messa," IzvPS, 17 July 1920, p. 1.

16. On the ceremony, see Aksenov, Organizatsiia, p. 22.

17. "Sud nad zheltym Internatsionalom," P, 31 Kuly 1920, p. 1.

18. N. Strelnikov, "Edinyi Internatsional," ZI, 29 January 1920; "Khudozhestvennaia zhizn'," ZI, 11 February 1920, p. 1.

19. This description is based on the following firsthand accounts: Istoriia

sovetskogo teatra, pp. 271-78; Kerzhentsev, Tvorcheskii teatr, pp. 139-42; Petrov, 50 i 500, pp. 188-92; Russkii-sovetskii teatr, pp. 268-71; Massovye prazdnestva, pp. 66-70; Piotrovskii, Za sovetskii teatr, pp. 12-14; Fülöp-Miller, The Mind and Face of Bolshevism, pp. 208-10; Lev Nikulin, Zapiski sputnika (Moscow: Sovetskaia literatura, 1933), pp. 62-65; Andreeva, Perepiska, vospominaniia, pp. 419-20, 435-36; Alfred Rosmer, Moscow under Lenin, trans. Ian H. Birchall (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1972), pp. 66-68; Goldman, My Disillusionment in Russia, pp. 75-78; Vtoroi kongress Kommunisticheskogo Internatsionala (Petrograd: Izd. Kommunisticheskogo Internatsionala, 1920); E. Preobrazhenskii, "Mnogoobeshchaiushchii opyt," P, 30 July 1920, p. 1; P. Kudelli, "Novoe zrelishche na portale Fondovoi Birzhi," PP, 21 July 1920, p. 2 (also in AMI [1984]); Sergei Kozakevich, ''V masshtabakh otkrytogo neba," ZI, 5 November 1920, p. 1; Aleksandr Belenson, ''Vokrug dvukh mirov," ZI, 21 July 1920, p. 1; Aleksandr Belenson, "K mirovoi kommune," ZI, 23 July 1920, p. 1; Georgii Gur'ev, "Eshche o massovykh postanovkakh," ZI, 1 September 1920, p. 1; and Kuznetsov, "Pod otkrytym nebom."

20. G. Kryzhitskii, K. A. Mardzhanov i russkii teatr (Moscow: VTO, 1958), p. 116.

21. K. A. Mardzhanov, Tvorcheskoe nasledie (Tbilisi: Zaria vostoka, 1958), pp. 107-8.

22. Kerzhentsev, Tvorcheskii teatr, pp. 140-42.

23. See AMI (1984), plates 186-87. Descriptions in Piotrovskii, Za sovetskii teatr, p. 12; and S. Radlov, "Sud'by teatra za vremia revoliutsii," ZI, 24 October 1922, p. 1.

24. See also M. Levin, "Miting o khalture," ZI, 3 August 1920, p. 1.

25. The same trick had been used by Percy MacKaye in a pageant in Gloucester, Massachusetts, attended by Woodrow Wilson: see MacKaye, Civic Theatre, p. 161.

26. "Repetitsiia misterii 'Dva mira,'" IzvPS, 17 July 1920, p. 1.

27. Radlov, Stat'i o teatre, p. 44.

28. "Okhrana ploshchadi pered birzhei," PP, 20 June 1920, p. 2.

29. A similar, though nonelectric, signaling system had been devised by Jacques Louis David for the Fête of Reunion.

30. Radlov, Stat'i o teatre, p. 44.

31. A segment of the "score" of the scenario, listing entrances and their accompanying locations, music, and so forth, can be found in Massovye prazdnestva, pp. 68-69. See Table 1.

32. Nikulin, Zapiski sputnika, p. 63.

33. "K oktiabr'skim torzhestvam," ZI, 4-5 November 1919, p. 3.

34. See the march routes in "K pervomu maia," IzvPS, 28 April 1918, p. 4.

35. The tribune was the hood of a car. See the photos in Pl, 1 May 1918.

36. V. Zhemchuzhnyi, Kak organizovat' oktiabr'skuiu demonstratsiiu (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1927), pp. 11-13.

37. "K oktiabr'skim torzhestvam," ZI, 1 November 1918, p. 4. Attendance was allowed only for those with a pass. "Ot tsentral'nogo biuro po ustroistvu oktiabr'skikh prazdnestv," SK, 6 November 1918, p. 1.

38. "K oktiabr'skim torzhestvam," ZI, 5 November 1918, p. 4.

39. "Tsirkuliarnoe obrashchenie Vserossiiskoi tsentral'noi oktiabr'skoi komissii," Vestnik agitatsii i propagandy, 19 October 1920, p. 13.

40. "K oktiabr'skim torzhestvam," ZI, 23-24 October 1920, p. 1.

41. PSS, vol. 3, pp. 168-73.

42. Quoted in Stites, Revolutionary Dreams, p. 243.

43. Osip Mandelstam, The Complete Critical Prose and Letters, trans. Jane Gray Harris (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Ardis, 1979), p. 170.

44. "K godovshchine oktiabr'skoi revoliutsii," ZI, 10 September 1920, p. 1; also, K. N. Derzhavin, "Vziatie Zimnego dvortsa v 1920 g. K 5-letiiu instsenirovki," ZI, no. 45 (1925); and Nikulin, Zapiski sputnika, p. 81.

45. See "Khronika," Iskusstvo, no. 2 [6] (1918), pp. 15-16; N. Punin, "O pamiatnikakh," IK, 9 March 1919, p. 2.

46. Viktor Shklovskii, "Pamiatniki russkoi revoliutsii," ZI, 28-29 June 1919, p. 2. See similar thoughts in Punin, "O pamiatnikakh," pp. 2-3.

47. N. Punin, Pamiatnik Tret'emu Internatsionalu (Petersburg: IZO, 1920); translation from Fülöp-Miller, The Mind and Face of Bolshevism, pp. 144-46.

48. "Pamiatnik oktiabr'skoi revoliutsii," ZI, 24-25 October 1919, p. 1.

49. "Podgotovka k godovshchine oktiabr'skoi revoliutsii," IzvTsIK, 12 September 1920, p. 3.

50. T. M. Goriaeva, "Pervaia godovshchina oktiabr'skoi revoliutsii," SSSR, pp. 132-33.

51. "Tretii Internatsional," in PSS, vol. 2, p. 43.

52. "Prazdnik v chest' vtorogo kongressa Kommunisticheskogo Internatsionala," P, 29 July 1920, p. 1. Another fine description is in Marguerite E. Harrison, Marooned in Moscow (New York: George Doran, 1921), pp. 180-83.

53. As far as I know, this is the first instance of a practice familiar to any modern observer who attended a Soviet May Day or November 7 demonstration in Red Square. Films of 1919 demonstrations show marchers filing through the densely packed ranks of spectators: "Moskva. Prazdnovanie pervogo maia 1919 g.," Kinonedelia, no. 41 (20 May 1919), pt. II.

54. Vasilii Chibison, "Prazdnik rabochikh," P, 29 July 1920, p. 1.

55. Karl Radek, "Organizovannaia massa," P, 29 July 1920, supplement, p. 1.

56. TsGALI, f. 2731, op. 1, d. 102.

57. Sovetskii politicheskii plakat/The Soviet Political Poster 1917-1945 (Moscow: Sovetskii khudozhnik, 1984), poster 15.

58. Accounts of this performance are legion: Istoriia sovetskogo teatra, pp. 279-82; N. Evreinov, "Vziatie Zimnego dvortsa," Krasnyi militsioner, no. 14 (1920), pp. 4-5—in French: Nicolas Evreinoff, Histoire du théâtre russes (Paris: Editions du Chene, 1947), pp. 426-30); Gourfinkel, Théâtre russe contemporain, pp. 135-38; Kerzhentsev, Tvorcheskii teatr, pp. 142-44; Fülöp-Miller, The Mind and Face of Bolshevism, pp. 211-13; Petrov, 50 i 500, pp. 194-95; Russkii-sovetskii teatr, pp. 273-75; Annenkov, Dnevnik moikh vstrech, vol. 2, p. 118-28; Piotrovskii, Za sovetskii teatr, pp. 16-17; Nikulin, Zapiski sputnika, pp. 80-82; Holitscher, Drei Monat in Sowyet Russland, pp. 126 ff.; Huntly Carter, The New Spirit in the Russian Theatre (London: Brentano, 1929), pp. 143-48; N. D. Volkov, Teatral'nye vechera (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1966), pp. 27-31; Golub

Evreinov, pp. 195-202; AMI (1984), pp. 113-17;"K instsenirovke Vziatiia Zimnego dvortsa," PP, 26 October 1920, p. 1; L. Nikulin, "Vos'mogo noiabria 1920 goda," PP, 31 October 1920, p. 2; ''Na repetitsii instsenirovki 'Vziatie Zimnego dvortsa,'" PP, 4 November 1920, p. 2; "Vziatie Zimnego dvortsa. Opyt,'' PP, 7 November 1920, p. 2; "Proletarskoe deistvo. Na instsenirovke 'Vziatie Zimnego dvortsa,'" PP, 10 November 1920, p. 2; "Instsenirovka Vziatiia Zimnego dvortsa," IzvPS, 28 October 1920, p. 2; "Instsenirovka 'Vziatie Zimnego dvortsa.' Libretto v okonchatel'noi redaktsii," IzvPS, 6 November 1920, p. 2; Konst. Derzhavin, "Chudo. K postanovke 'Vziatie Zimnego dvortsa,'" IzvPS, 9 November 1920, p. 1; "Vziatie Zimnego dvortsa. Vpechatleniia," IzvPS, 9 November 1920, p. 1; Nik. [Evreinov], "Vziatie Zimnego dvortsa," ZI, 30-31 October 1920, p. 1; Kozakevich, "V masshtabakh otkrytogo neba"; N. Evreinov, "Vziatie Zimnego dvortsa. Vospominaniia ob instsenirovke v oznamenovanie tret'ei godovshchiny oktiabr'skoi revoliutsii," ZI, 4 November 1924, pp. 7-9 (complete version in TsGALI, f. 982, op. 1, d. 31); Derzhavin, "Vziatie Zimnego dvortsa"; "Vziatie Zimnego dvortsa," VT, no. 74 (1920), pp. 11-12; and N. Shubskii, "Na ploshchadi Uritskogo. Vpechatleniia Moskvicha," VT, no. 75 (1920), pp. 4-5. The idiosyncratic version in GrayProkofieva, The Russian Experiment in Art, can be ignored.

59. From the libretto, in Russkii-sovetskii teatr, p. 272.

60. "K instsenirovke Vziatiia Zimnego dvortsa," PP, 26 October 1920.

61. "Chto trebuetsia ot zritelei vo vremia instsenirovki," PP, 7 November 1920, p. 4.

62. See Konst. Derzhavin, "O massovykh predstavleniiakh," IzvPS, 27 October 1920, p. 2.

63. "K oktiabr'skim torzhestvam," PP, 26 October 1920, p. 1. Many thanks to Alma Law for making this film available.

64. This definition is Piotrovsky's: Za sovetskii teatr, p. 16.

65. This I assume from the fact that only 600 actors wore make-up: they were most likely the Whites: LGAOR, f. 1000, op. 79, d. 49.

1. A. Agulianskii, "Proletarskie prazdnestva i rabotniki iskusstva," Vestnik teatra i iskusstva, 20 December 1921, p. 13.

2. Aksenov, Organizatsiia, p. 45.

3. TsGA RSFSR, f. 2313, op. 2, ed. kr. 36.

4. AMI (1984), p. 119.

5. V. D. Zeldovich, "Velikolepnii plan," in Lenin and Lunacharskii, Perepiska, pp. 663-64.

6. P. M. Kerzhentsev, "Iskusstvo na ulitsu," Iskusstvo, no. 3 (1918), p. 12; Vlad. Mass, "Teatral'nyi oktiabr' i futurizm," VT, no. 91-92 (1921), p. 4.

7. Zolotnitskii, Zori teatral'nogo oktiabria, p. 325.

8. "Revoliutsionnaia poshlost'," VT, no. 85-86 (1921), p. 6.

9. Ilya Ehrenburg, People and Life, 1891-1921 (New York: Knopf, 1962), p. 388.

10. In Russkaia teatral'naia parodiia XIX-nachala XX veka (Moscow: Iskustvo, 1976).

11. L. Arne, "Mirovoi konkurs ostroumiia. Vol'naia komediia," ZI, 15 November 1921, p. 1.

12. M. Danilevskii, Prazdniki obshchestvennogo byta (Moscow: Doloi negramotnosti, 1927), p. 38.

13. See the following Agit-Prop critiques: Nevskii, Massovaia politiko-prosvetitel'naia rabota; and Ia. Shafir, Gazeta i derevnia (Moscow: Krasnaia nov', 1924).

14. U istokov, pp. 176-77.

15. Tsekhnovitser, Prazdnestva revoliutsii, pp. 85-86.

16. TsGALI, f.963, op.1, d.1561.

17. "Moskva," ZI, 19 May 1925, p. 22; Massovye prazdniki i zrelishcha, p. 12.

18. Samuil Margolin, "Iz tsikla 'neosushchestvlennyi teatr.' 'Bor'ba i pobeda.' Massovoe deistvo Vs. Meierkhol'da," Ekho, no. 13 (1923), p. 11.

19. "Spor ob Akvariume," VT, no. 89-90 (1921), p. 19.

20. "A Commissar," and "A Meeting with Comrade Podvoisky," in Franklin Rosemont, ed., Isadora Speaks (San Francisco: City Lights, 1981), pp. 71-77.

21. "Vsevobuch i iskusstvo," VT, no. 78-79 (1921), pp. 24-25.

22. James Riordan, Sport in Soviet Society: Development of Sport and Physical Education in Russia and the USSR (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), p. 102.

23. Martha Bradshaw, ed., Soviet Theaters, 1917-1941 (New York: Research Program on the USSR, 1954), p. 25.

24. N. M. Smirnov, "Teatral'naia rabota v klubakh," Revoliutsionnye vskhody, no. 7-8 (1920), p. 14.

25. A. Piotrovskii, "K teorii samodeiatel'nogo teatra," in Problemy sotsiologii iskusstva, pp. 121-24.

26. Massovye prazdnestva, p. 73.

27. See Edinyi khudozhestvennyi kruzhok. Metody klubno-khudozhestvennoi raboty (Leningrad: Izd. knizhnogo sektora Gubono, 1924), or Piotrovskii, Za sovetskii teatr, pp. 7-9.

28. Poems, songs, slogans, costumes, and games devised for the holiday can be found in several collections published under the title Komsomol'skoe rozhdestvo (Tula: Rossiiskii kommunisticheskii soiuz molodezhi, 1923; Moscow: MK RKSM, 1923; Moscow: Krasnaia nov', 1923).

29. "Masterskaia Meierkhol'da," Lef, no. 2 (1923), pp. 170-71.

30. William Reswick, I Dreamt Revolution (Chicago: Regnery, 1932), p. 164; Lancelot Lawton, The Russian Revolution, 1917-1926 (London: Macmillan, 1927), p. 417; A. Ivanov, "Komsomol'skoe rozhdestvo," Rabochii klub, no. 10-11 (1924), pp. 12-13.

31. Vit. Zhemchuzhnyi, "Protiv obriadov," Novyi Lef, no. 1 (1927), p. 45; V. Zhemchuzhnyi, "Demonstratsiia v oktiabre," Novyi Lef, no. 5 (1927), pp. 47-48.

32. S[ergei] T[retiakov], "Zapisnaia knizhka. Otsenka khudozhestvennogo oformleniia desiatioktiabria," Novyi Lef, no. 10 (1927), pp. 7-8.

33. S. Tretiakov, "Kak desiatiletit'," Novyi Lef, no. 4 (1927), p. 37; I. Ch., "Kak ispol'zovali deistvennikov," Novyi Lef, no. 10 (1927), p. 10.

34. See Biulleten' kommissii pri prezidiume TsIK Soiuza SSR po organizatsii i provedeniiu prazdnovaniia 10-letiia oktiabr'skoi revoliutsii, no. 1 (1927), pp. 3-5.

35. Petrov, 50 i 500, pp. 195-205.

36. Reswick, I Dreamt Revolution, pp. 205-8.