1. Special thanks to Rajmohan Singh Rangad and his family for sharing their home in Gaichwan village with me in 1993-1994. Thanks also to Terry Austrin, Jacob Neusner, Jane Simpson, and Alf Hiltebeitel for their comments on a previous draft. The research upon which this essay is based was made possible by a grant from the University of Canterbury. [BACK]

2. Chandola, 1977, 18. [BACK]

3. The critical edition (nineteen volumes) was edited by V. S. Sukthankar (19331966). The only complete English translation is that of K. M. Ganguli, first published by P. C. Roy in 1883-1896 and recently reissued (1981-1982).J. A. B. van Buitenen translated two volumes before his death, and a team of scholars is carrying on with what will certainly become the standard English translation (1973-). The most useful condensed English translation is still that of C. V. Narasimhan (1965). [BACK]

4. Pollock 1986, 15. [BACK]

5. Hiltebeitel 1976, 1988. [BACK]

6. Biardeau 1976, 1978. [BACK]

7. An invaluable study relating Hindu pilgrimage places to the Mahabharata is Bhardwaj 1973. Other useful overviews of Hindu pilgrimage include Bharati 1970, Eck 1981, and Morinis 1984. Among a plethora of recent studies of Ayodhya and its continuing religio-political importance are Embree 1990 and van der Veer 1987. [BACK]

8. Galey 1986. [BACK]

9. For the concept of lila, see Haberman 1988; Hein 1972, 1987; and especially Sax 1994. [BACK]

10. Egnor 1980; Fuller 1992; Sax 1991b; Waghorne and Cutler 1985. [BACK]

11. Blackburn and Flueckiger (1989) have also argued that in India, epics are defined in terms of "the extent and intensity of a folklore community's identification with them; they help to shape a community's self-identity" (p. 6); and that "most important, oral epics in India have that special ability to tell a community's own story and thus help create and maintain that community's self-identity" (p. 11). Flueckiger's essay in this volume also shows how a folk epic changes along with the characteristics of its community. [BACK]

12. The arrowheads are not always used. Since they must receive blood sacrifice, they are not used in villages where such sacrifice is prohibited. In addition, they are not common in western Garhwal. [BACK]

13. After receiving the bow and arrow from a dancer representing the Pandavas' guru Drona, one holds both of them above one's head, looks up, and spins around while shaking them. Several small bells are attached to the bow, so that the sound of their jingling mixes with the pounding of the drums. There in the firelit square, under the bemused gaze of several hundred villagers, I had the distinct feeling that it was not I who was spinning the weapons around, but they were twirling me. [BACK]

14. See Sax 1997. [BACK]

15. Desai 1970. [BACK]

16. Sukthankar 1933, cii. [BACK]

18. This character is not found in the Pune edition of the epic. There is, however, a figure named Vikarna, one of the ninety-nine younger brothers of Duryodhana, who speaks up on Draupadi's behalf during her humiliation in the assembly. Possibly Vikhasan has some relation to him. [BACK]

19. Polyandry is found in the Jaunsar and Jaunpur regions, a few hours' journey away. See Majumdar 1963. [BACK]

20. For discussions of bride-price in general, see Tambiah 1973; for bride-price in the Central Himalayas, see Fanger 1987; Sax 1991a. [BACK]

21. According to one of the god's priests in Jakhol, there are a total of fourteen temples dedicated to the god in the immediate vicinity. I have been unable to confirm reports of a Duhshasana temple. [BACK]

22. There is a Duryodhana temple in Kerala with a priest who, when possessed by Duryodhana, dances on one leg for several hours (Tarabout 1986, 223, 483; cited in Hiltebeitel 1991, 178). I thank Alf Hiltebeitel for this reference. [BACK]

23. This "mini-Mahabharata" is the subject of a long folk song that I have transcribed and translated into standard Hindi with the help of Bhuli Das of Dyora village and hope to publish soon. [BACK]

24. Nautiyal (1971, 133-134) cites the Mahabharata to this effect, but I am unable to verify his claim. [BACK]

25. Saklani 1987, 44, 174ff. [BACK]

26. Ibbetson and MacLagan 1919; Raha 1979; Rosser 1955; Sax 199 a; Sutherland 1988. [BACK]

27. Duryodhana is said to be a partial incarnation of the demon Kali or "discord." [BACK]

28. jai ho, durijodhan maharaj, dasi durijodhan falane das jakhol, devata ka, somesvar devata ka dasi, jai ho devata somesor, teri maya. [BACK]

29 In 1991 I had to walk over ten kilometers and cross a major river to reach Jakhol from Sankari. In 1994, I took the twice-daily taxi service. [BACK]