1. See, for example, Briggs 1988, Bauman 1977, and Hymes 1971. For an earlier and broader statement, see Goffman 1974, particularly chap. 10, "Breaking Frame." [BACK]

2. See Hymes 1981, "Breakthrough into Performance" and "Breakthrough into Performance Revisited." [BACK]

3. For an overview of these materials, see Reynolds 1989. [BACK]

4. See Bird 1972; Lord 1974; Reichl 1992. [BACK]

5. The authoritative role of the first-person utterance has been an enduring feature of Arabic literature from the earliest periods onward, particularly in genres that are close to, or imitate, oral traditions. See Reynolds 1991. [BACK]

6. Reynolds 1995, chap. 5, "The Interplay of Genres." [BACK]

7. Taha is an epithet of the prophet Muhammad formed from the two Arabic letters Ta and Ha. [BACK]

8. See Martin 1989. [BACK]

9. Ibid., 237. [BACK]

10. Reynolds 1995, chap. 3, "Poets Inside and Outside the Epic." [BACK]

11. A remarkable incident from southern Egypt in which a poet was not able to disclaim an offending verse is analyzed in detail in Slyomovics 1987. [BACK]

12. See Burke 1931. [BACK]