1. Bueno, Geografía , 115; Alcedo, Diccionario 1:162-63.

2. Céspedes del Castillo, Lima y Buenos Aires , 65; Sempat Assadourian, El sistema .

3. Piel, Capitalisme agraire 1:132-33; Bueno, Geografía , 113-15; Cobb, "Supply and Transportation," 31-33; Glave, Trajinantes , 9-67.

4. Romero, Historia económica del Perú , 154-55; Alcedo, Diccionario 1:89.

5. Bueno, Geografía , 113-15; Alcedo, Diccionario 1:165.

6. Flores Galindo, Arequipa , 19.

7. Rivero y Ustáriz, "Visita a las minas del departamento de Puno en el año de 1826," in his Colección de memorias 2:36; Markham, Travels , 99-102.

8. Murra, "El contról verticál," 89-123.

9. Cephalio, "Disertación."

10. The livestock production of the southern altiplano supplied cities and mining centers between La Paz and La Plata.

11. Cephalio, "Disertación"; Barriga, Memorias 1:52-57.

12. This enormous number of sheep must have served both for urban meat supplies and for restocking livestock ranches in Cuzco's pastoral zone thus also indirectly supplying wool for the obrajes of Quispicanichis and Canas y Canchis.

13. Macera dell'Orso and Márquez Abanto, "Informes geográficos del Perú colonial," 229.

14. Paucarcolla's obrajes produced blankets for the army as late as the War of the Pacific in 1879; M. Basadre y Chocano, Riquezas peruanas , 103; Romero, Historia económica del Perú , 138-40.

15. Silva Santisteban, Los obrajes , 150; Mörner, Perfíl , 82-88.

16. Cephalio, "Disertación," table 2, between ff. 228 and 229; as late as 1780 the obraje of Chacamarca in the partido of Vilcashuaman near Huamanga (some five hundred kilometers northwest of Azángaro) received 80 percent of its raw wools from the Collao; see Salas de Coloma, "Los obrajes huamanguinos," 228, table I.

17. Cephalio, "Disertación."

18. For the great variety of European textiles sold in Arequipa during the 1780s, see Barriga, Memorias 1:96-99.

19. "Partido de Lampa de la Provincia e Intendencia de la Ciudad de Puno," May 23, 1808, BNP.

20. Macera dell'Orso and Márquez Abanto, "Informes geográficos del Perú colonial," 250.

21. Estimating 1.5 male tribute payers per household; based on figures from 1786 tribute recount, in Macera, Tierra y población 1:162.

22. See Kriedte, Medick, and Schlumbohm, Industrialisierung ; for an excellent case study, see Mooser, Ländliche Klassengesellschaft .

23. This view coincides with Emmanuel LeRoy Ladurie's view that in France during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries population development--ultimately shaped by epidemiological regimes--is the independent variable and economy is the dependent variable; see his "Die Tragödie des Gleichgewichts," 40.

24. O. H. Hufton, The Poor of Eighteenth Century France, 1750-1789 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974), 15, as cited by Mooser, Ländliche Klassengesellschaft , 48.

25. See, e.g., "Información testimonial tomada por el corregidor de Potosí en 1690," in Sanchez Albornóz, Indios y tributos , esp. 128-30; O'Phelan Godoy, Rebellions , 99-108; O'Phelan Godoy, "Aduanas," 58-61; Spalding, Huarochirí , 200-204; ANB, EC año 1762, No. 144.

26. See Sempat Assadourian, El sistema .

27. Céspedes del Castillo, Lima y Buenos Aires , 65-66.

28. Ibid.; Flores Galindo, Arequipa , 23.

29. Rivero y Ustáriz, "Visita a las minas," in his Colección de memorias 2:21; Choquehuanca, Ensayo , 64; Glave, Trajinantes , 23-79.

30. Glave, Trajinantes , 23-79; Sánchez Albornóz, Indios y tributos , esp. 130; complaints against Kuraka Diego Choquehuanca by Indians from ayllus Nequeneque, Picotani, and Chuquini (1760-62), ANB, EC año 1762, No. 144.

31. Tandeter and Wachtel, Precios , 9-15, 23-30; Tyrer, "Demographic and Economic History," 97-98; Moscoso, "Apuntes," 67-94.

32. Céspedes del Castillo, Lima y Buenos Aires , 65-66; Kossok, El virreinato , 57-60, 68-79.

33. Haring, Spanish Empire in America , 315-16; Kossok, El virreinato , 57.

34. Céspedes del Castillo, Lima y buenos Aires , 120-21; O'Phelan Godoy, "Las reformas," 342.

35. J. Fisher, Commercial Relations , 14.

36. Ibid., 46, 55; for the effects on Lima-based commerce, see Flores Galindo, "Aristocracia en vilo," 274-77, and Haitin, "Urban Market and Agrarian Hinterland," 284-86.

37. Tandeter, "Trabajo forzado."

38. Céspedes del Castillo, Lima y Buenos Aires , 185.

39. O'Phelan Godoy, Rebellions , 162-68.

40. Ibid. The literature on the Túpac Amaru rebellion has become vast; for divergent interpretations, see Campbell, "Recent Research," 3-48; Golte, Repartos y rebeliones ; Cornblit, "Society and Mass Rebellion"; Vega, José Gabriel Túpac Amaru ; Flores Galindo, Túpac Amaru II ; and Actas del Coloquio . The best general account is still Lewin, La rebelión .

41. Angelis, Colección 4:347; for other royalist kurakas in Azángaro, see "Carta del Ilmo. Sr. Dr. D. Juan Manuel Moscoso, Obispo del Cuzco, al de La Paz, Dr. D. Gregorio Francisco del Campo, sobre la sublevación de aquellas provincias," in ibid. 4:443.

42. Sahuaraura Titu Atauchi, Estado del Perú , 14 n. 32; on the symbolism of massive violence during the rebellion, see Flores Galindo, Buscando un Inca , 133-39; for skepticism on the extent of violence and destruction during the rebellion, see Mörner, Perfíl de la sociedad rural , 123-29.

43. Sahuaraura, Estado del Perú , 116 nn. 28-29; L. Fisher, Last Inca Revolt , 254-55; Jacobsen, "Land Tenure," 70-71.

44. "Breve reseña historica," 9.

45. Paz, Guerra separatista 1:270-271.

46. Diego Cristóval Túpac Amaru to Juan Manuel Moscoso, Bishop of Cuzco, May 8, 1782, in ibid. 2:239; see also ibid. 1:284.

47. Petition by corregidores of Carabaya and Azángaro, Jan. 18, 1781, ANB, EC año 1781.

48. Sahuaraura, Estado del Perú , 10 n. 10.

49. Cephalio, "Disertación," 225.

50. J. Fisher, Government , 127-28; Glave and Remy, Estructura agraria , 442-43, 518-19, speak of a crisis of overproduction in the southern sierra for the 1780s to 1820.

51. J. Fisher, Government , 49-52.

52. "Nuevo plan que establece la perpetua tranquilidad del vasto imperio del Perú y produce sumas ventajas a todos los dominios de S.C.M.," in Juicio de limites 4:95-112.

53. Flores Galindo, Arequipa , 39-44.

54. Ibid., 44.

55. Roel, Historia social , 223.

56. Cornejo Bouroncle, Pumacahua , 369-70. In 1814 the five-year-old Josée Rufino Echenique, the later Peruvian president whose family owned estates in the provinces of Carabaya and Azángaro, escaped death by lynching from a mob in the town of Phara, Carabaya, only through the mercy of one of the Indian peasants; see Echenique, Memorias 1:4.

57. Cornejo Bouroncle, Pumacahua , 385-447, 487-90.

58. Abascal y Sousa, Memoria de gobierno 1:219.

59. Ibid. 2:193.

60. Halperin donghi, Revolución y guerra , 79-80.

61. Pentland, Informe , 104; Charles Ricketts to George Canning, Lima, 1826, in Bonilla, Gran Bretaña 1:64.

62. Choquehuanca, Ensayo , 64.

63. Halperín Donghi, Historia contemporanea , 147.

64. Haigh, Sketches , 380-81; see also Gootenberg, "Merchants, Foreigners, and the State," 175-77.

65. Bonilla, "Aspects" 1:65.

66. Gootenberg, "Merchants, Foreigners, and the State," 44.

67. "Manuel Aparicio, Prefecto de Puno al Ministro de Estado en el departamento de Gobierno y Relaciones Exteriores," Puno, June 15, 1826, cited in Bonilla, del Rio, and Ortíz de Zevallos, "Comercio libre," 18. The classical formulation of the dependency position remains Cardoso and Faletto, Dependencia ; for Peru, see Bonilla and Spalding, "La independencia en el Perú," 15-65; for an opposing view, see D. Platt, ''Dependency," 113-31.

68. Rivero, Memorias , 27; Gootenberg, "Merchants, Foreigners, and the State," 206; Tamayo Herrera, Historia social del Cuzco , 36-43.

69. Langer, "Espacios coloniales y economías nacionales," 140-47; Mörner, Notas sobre el comercio , 10.

70. Gootenberg, "Merchants, Foreigners, and the State," 215-16; Tamayo Herrera, Historia social del Cuzco , 41-43; Bosch Spencer, Statistique commerciale , 50-51, 331.

71. During the 1790s Tadeo Haenke noted that the abolition of repartos had diminished the price of many goods for Indians by half or more; see his Descripción del Perú , 112-14.

72. Choquehuanca, Ensayo .

73. Ibid., 65; Krüggeler, "Sozial und Wirtschaftsgeschichte," 13-14; Krüggeler, "El doble desafío"; Rivero, Memorias , 12.

74. Choquehuanca, Ensayo , 69.

75. Bosch Spencer, Statistique commerciale , 50-51; on Indian apparel circa 1870-1900, see Plane, Le Pérou , 27, 40-44; Forbes, On the Aymara Indians , 37; Tschudi ( Peru 2:174-75), despite racism in some passages, admiringly described how Indians in the early 1840s continued to weave "cloth of excellent fineness." For a surely exaggerated view of the Indians' almost total reliance on imports, see Markham, Travels , 76 n. 6.

76. Marcoy, Travels 1:79, 84-85, 103.

77. I estimate southern Peru's sheep population, circa 1830, to have been 2,242,799 head, and that of cameloids 380,423 head. These figures are based on the ratio between livestock population for a few altiplano provinces from the early nineteenth century, contained in table 4.3, and from 1959, contained in Min. de Hacienda y Comercio, Plan regional 28:239-59. I applied these ratios to the 1959 figures for total sheep and cameloid populations in southern Peru to arrive at the estimates for 1830. Southern Peru includes the modern departments of Apurímac, Arequipa, Cuzco, Madre de Dios, Moquegua, Puno, and Tacna. In estimating wool production in 1830 I used the mean production figure per animal from 1959, contained in Plan regional. This calculation results in estimates of 1,677.614 metric tons of sheep wool and 652.045 metric tons of cameloid wools produced in southern Peru in 1830. Mean exports of sheep wool from Islay, 1837-40, were 764.382 tons per year, or 45.6 percent of southern Peru's estimated sheep wool production. The peak year of 1840 saw exports of 904.767 tons of sheep wool, 53.9 percent of estimated production. Mean annual cameloid wool exports from Islay in 1837-40 were 345.125 metric tons, or 52.9 percent of estimated production. In the peak year of 1840, 598.117 tons of cameloid wools were exported, 91.7 percent of production. The rates of wools exported are upper-bound estimates.

78. Choquehuanca, Ensayo , 28, 37 n. 1, 64.

79. For Mexico between the 1820s and 1860s, see Tutino, From Insurrection to Revolution , 229.

80. Wittman, Estudios históricos sobre Bolivia , 174.

81. Pentland, Informe sobre Bolivia , 105; José Maria Dalence, Bosquejo estadístico de Bolivia (Chuquisaca, 1851), as cited in Peñaloza, La Paz 4:24.

82. Pentland, Informe sobre Bolivia , 105; Peñaloza, La Paz 4:24; Peñaloza, Historia económica de Bolivia 2:91-92.

83. On commercial relations between Peru and Bolivia from the 1830s to 1860, see Jacobsen, "Land Tenure," 88-90; on continuity rather than ruptures in cross-border Andean trade, see Langer, "Espacios coloniales y economías nacionales."

84. Langer, "Espacios coloniales y economías nacionales," 146.

85. Among Macedo's co-conspirators were notable landowners and politicians, including Pedro Aguirre and Pedro Miguel Urbina and perhaps the Azangarinos José Mariano Escobedo and José Domingo Choquehuanca; see Herrera Alarcón, Rebeliones , 13-44.

86. The Azangarino hacendados Juan Cazorla and José Antonio de Macedo were deputies to the Assambly of Sicuani, which on March 17, 1836, declared the creation of a south Peruvian state under the protectorate of Santa Cruz; see Valdivia, Memorias , 160.

87. Colonel Manuel José Choquehuanca, a cousin of José Domingo, held this opinion; see Luna, Choquehuanca el amauta , 51.

88. Amat y Junient, Memoria de Gobierno , 230-32.

89. Hunt, Price and Quantum Estimates , 38-40; Bonilla, "Aspects" 1:26, 33, 39, 45; Bonilla, "Islay," 31-47.

90. On wool export statistics and their problems, see Jacobsen, "Land Tenure," 93-102.

91. Ibid., 95-96; Haigh, Sketches , 380-81.

92. Gosselman, Informes , 76-77.

93. For the years from 1843 to 1851 only a few highly contradictory wool export statistics are available. See Jacobsen, "Land Tenure," 97-99; Hunt, Price and Quantum Estimates , 38-39; Bonilla, "Islay," 42-43; Esteves, Apuntes para la historia económica , 38-45.

94. Gootenberg, "Social Origins"; Rivero, Memorias , 68-69.

95. Deane and Cole, British Economic Growth , 192-210; Southey, Rise , 4; Dechesne, L'evolution , 140-41.

96. Jacobsen, "Land Tenure," 97-99; Hunt, Price and Quantum Estimates , 38-39; Bonilla, "Islay," 42-43; R. Miller, "Wool Trade."

97. Detailed wool export statistics, omitted here for reasons of space, can be found in my article "Cycles and Booms," 492-500, and in Jacobsen, "Land Tenure," app. 1, 815-33.

98. Southey, Rise , 35-37, 77.

99. Jacobsen, "Land Tenure," 99-102; Hunt, Price and Quantum Estimates , 38-40; Bonilla, "Islay," 42-44.

100. Haigh, Sketches , 381.

101. Choquehuanca, Ensayo , 13; Rivero y Ustáriz, "Visita a las minas," in his Colección 2:5-36; Romero, Monografía del departamento de Puno , 439-56; Deustua, "Producción minera."

102. Deustua, "Producción minera"; Romero, Monografía del departamento de Puno , 448; Markham, Travels , 99-102; Castelnau, Expedition 3:404-5; Rivero y Ustáriz, "Visita a las minas," Colecció 2:36; Porras Barrenechea, Dos viajeros franceses , 55. On Puno silver mining after independence, see Deustua, La minería , 86-96.

103. Romero, Monografía del departamento de Puno , 441, 454-56; Markham, Travels , 99-102.

104. Deustua, "El ciclo interno," 23-49.

105. Ibid., 27; M. Basadre y Chocano, Riquezas peruana , 144; Herndon and Gibbon, Exploration 2:91-92.

106. Romero, Monografía del departamento de Puno , 444-50; Deustua, "El ciclo interno," 27, 31-35.

107. Ibid., 31-32; Markham, Travels , 206-11; J. Basadre, Historia de la república 2:848-49; Herndon and Gibbon, Exploration 2:91-92. On the embeddedness of mining in the Andean agrarian economy, see Contreras, Mineros , esp. chs. 9-11.

108. Marcoy, Travels 1:99-100.

109. Basadre, Historia de la república 3:1310; Dancuart and Rodríguez, Anales 3:41-42.

110. Dancuart and Rodríguez, Anales 3:41-42; Rivero, Memorias , 40; Romero, Historia económica del Perú , 344; REPA, año 1855, Oblitas (May 22, 1855).

111. Great Britain, Parliament, Sessional Papers , 1837-38, 47:401-2.

112. Reports by Consul Cocks about Islay trade in 1863 and 1864, in Bonilla, Gran Bretaña 4:140-44, 164; Markham, Travels , 206.

113. Rivero, Memorias , 27, 66.

114. M. Basadre y Chocano, Riquezas peruanas , 122.

115. Ibid., 144; REPA, 1864, Patiño, F. 133, No. 57 (Dec. 24, 1864).

116. On the central sierra, see Manrique, Mercado interno , esp. 108-41; Wilson, "Propiedad," 36-54.

117. Tschudi, Reisen durch Südamerika 5:167.

118. Ibid. 5:351; Haigh, Sketches , 380-81.

119. Tschudi, Reisen durch Südamerika 5:179-80.

120. Hermenegildo Agramonte to Juan Paredes, Cabanillas, Dec. 3, 1850, MPA.

121. Glade, Latin American Economies , 202-3; Gootenberg, "Merchants, Foreigners, and the State," 203-22.

122. Will of Juan Paredes, Dec. 8, 1874, MPA.

123. Juan Bautista Zea to Juan Paredes, Arapa, Mar. 10, 1847, MPA.

124. Hermenegildo Agramonte to Juan Paredes, Cabanillas, Dec. 3, 1850; Agustín Aragón to Juan Paredes, Checayani, Sept. 22, 1853; Aragón to Francisco Esquiróz, San Antón, Mar. 15, 1867; all MPA.

125. See, e.g., Escobedo to Paredes, Arequipa, Apr. 11, 1862; see also Agustín Aragón to Paredes, Checayani, Sept. 22, 1853; both in MPA.

126. Mestas to Paredes, Caminaca, July 12, 1845, MPA (my translation retains the errors in the original).

127. Appleby, "Exportation and Its Aftermath," 55.

128. See Jacobsen, "Land Tenure," table 2-1, 112-12a.

129. Porras Barrenechea, Dos viajeros franceses , 204; M. Paz Soldán, Geografía del Perú , 423.

130. On the fair at Pucará, see Marcoy, Travels 1:107-8.

131. Bustamante, Apuntes , 10; Markham, Travels , 284.

132. Markham, Travels , 284.

133. For the lower estimate, see M. Paz Soldán, Geografía del Perú, 423; for the higher estimate, see   Bustamante, Apuntes , 10.

134. M. Paz Soldán, Geografía del Perú , 423; report by Consul Wilthew about Islay trade in 1859, in Bonilla, Gran Bretaña 4:247.

135. See Glade, Latin American Economies , 202-3; Flores Galindo, Arequipa , 75.

136. Juan Bautista Zea to Juan Paredes, Arapa, Mar. 10, 1847; Juan Medrano to Paredes, Caira (dept. de Cuzco), Nov. 1857; both MPA.

137. Andrés Urviola to Manuel E. Paredes (his son-in-law), Muñani, Nov. 9, 1867, MPA.

138. M. Paz Soldán, Geografía del Perú , 464; J. Basadre, Historia de la república 3:1290-91; Flores Galindo, Arequipa y el sur andino , 108-9; Marcoy, Travels 1:52.

139. Piel, "Place of the Peasantry," 120-22.