1. Kapsoli, Los movimientos , ch. 1; Gonzales, "Neo-Colonialism"; Hazen, "Awakening of Puno," ch. 2. [BACK]

2. Ramos Zambrano, Movimientos , 15-28; D. Mayer, "La historia." [BACK]

3. Ramos Zambrano, Movimientos , 29-34; Bustamante Otero, "Mito y realidad," 126-30; I would like to thank Scarlett O'Phelan Godoy for sending me a copy of this thesis. [BACK]

4. Villarán, "Condición legal"; T. Davies, Indian Integration in Peru , 50-52; Hazen, "Awakening of Puno," ch. 3. [BACK]

5. In 1901 President López de Romaña dispatched a commission headed by Dr. Alejandro Maguiña to investigate peasant protests against local authorities in Puno's Chucuito province; see Maguiña's report of March 15, 1902, in Macera, Maguiña, and Rengifo, Rebelión India , 19-56. In June 1913 the early populist president Guillermo Billinghurst commissioned lawyer Pedro C. Villena to investigate abuses in Puno department. Villena's report detailed specific cases of fraudulent land usurpations by several prominent citizens in Lampa province; see Peru, Informe que presenta el Doctor Pedro C. Villena . I would like to thank Gordon Appleby for providing me with a copy of the report. In what was to become the most fateful of all these commissions, a few months later Billinghurst dispatched Major Teodomiro Gutiérrez Cuevas to investigate the violent clashes in and around Saman; the resulting report disappeared after Bustamante's overthrow in 1914. Two years later, during the administration of José Pardo, Peru's Ministry of Foreign Relations sent Dr. Victor Cárdenas to Puno to investigate the relationship between peasant uprisings and border conflicts with Bolivia; see "Informe que presenta a la Cancillería el doctor Victor R. Cárdenas sobre la influencia boliviana en algunas provincias de Puno, la condición del indio en ese departamento y las medidas que deben adoptarse," Archivo General del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, as cited in Bustamante Otero, "Mito y realidad," 180v n. 1. [BACK]

6. Hazen, "Awakening of Puno," ch. 2; Ramos Zambrano, Movimientos , 20-26. [BACK]

7. Details of these events vary in different accounts. The most reliable study is Ramos Zambrano, Movimientos ; see also Bustamante Otero, "Mito y realidad"; Hazen, "Awakening of Puno," 139-50; D. Mayer, "La historia"; Paredes, ''El levantamiento"; Urquiaga, Sublevaciónes , 53-59; Tamayo Herrera, Historia social e indigenismo en el Altiplano , 202-17; Burga and Flores Galindo, Apogeo , 115-19; Flores Galindo, Buscando un Inca , 241-48. [BACK]

8. Gutiérrez Cuevas himself was captured in Arequipa in April 1916. In January 1917 he escaped from prison and fled to Bolivia, where he died sometime between the late 1920s and 1937. He kept in contact with indigenistas and revolutionaries in southern Peru and Bolivia and wrote a revolutionary plan of vast proportions that shows influences of anarchism, indigenismo, and Freemasonry, as well as his military background. See Ramos Zambrano, Movimientos , 40-41, 47-70; Bustamante Otero, "Mito y realidad," 157-61. [BACK]

9. Lizares Quiñones, Los problemas ; Bustamante Otero, "Mito y realidad," 156. [BACK]

10. Tamayo Herrera, Historia social e indigenismo en el Altiplano , 201; Burga and Flores Galindo, Apogeo , 118, 127-28; Flores Galindo, Buscando un Inca , 248. [BACK]

11. The reconstruction of community through memory is emphasized in Rivera Cusicanqui, Oppressed but Not Defeated , ch. 2; see also Glave, "Conflict and Social Reproduction," 143-58. [BACK]

12. Tamayo Herrera, Historia social e indigenismo en el Altiplano , 209. [BACK]

13. Florencio Diaz Bedregal, "Los levantamientos indígenas en la provincia de Huancané," Ideología (Ayacucho), no. 1 (1972): 37, cited in Kapsoli, Los movimientos , 74. [BACK]

14. During 1915 altiplano peasants may have felt especially frustrated by the paradox of rising wool prices and stagnating or falling purchases by traders because of a shortage of cash, temporarily created by Peru's monetary disturbances at the beginning of the war; see Bustamante Otero, "Mito y realidad," 130-31. [BACK]

15. This argument has been made for the mid-nineteenth-century peasant communities of the Mantaro valley by Contreras, "Estado republicano." [BACK]

16. Reátegui Chávez, Documentos , 32-36. [BACK]

17. For a detailed account of this crisis, see Burga and Reátegui, Lanas , 43-49. [BACK]

18. Bertram, "Modernización," 18-19, tables 3.a, 3.b; Burga and Reátegui, Lanas , ch. 3. [BACK]

19. Burga and Reátegui, Lanas , 46. [BACK]

20. Appleby, "Exportation and Its Aftermath," 70-71. [BACK]

21. Sociedad Ganadera del Departamento de Puno, Memoria , 5-6. [BACK]

22. Min. de Agricultura, Zona Agraria 12 (Puno), Sub-dirección de Reforma Agraria, Expedientes de Afectación: Huasacona, Sociedad Ganadera del Sur. [BACK]

23. Hacendados were especially angry because they knew that the wool prices offered by Arequipa export houses had fallen much more steeply than international prices had; see Sociedad Ganadera del Departamento de Puno, Memoria , 5-6. [BACK]

24. Hazen, "Awakening of Puno," 109. [BACK]

25. "Seismic wave" is from Flores Galindo, Buscando un Inca , 240. [BACK]

26. On indigenismo in Puno see Tamayo Herrera, Historia social e indigenismo en el Altiplano , part 4; Hazen, "Awakening of Puno," chs. 3, 6. For the movement in Peru generally, see Degregori, Valderrama, Alfajeme, and Francke Ballve, Indigenismo ; Chevalier, "Official Indigenismo." [BACK]

27. Hazen, "Awakening of Puno," 190. [BACK]

28. Ibid. The commission report of 1921 was published by one of its members; see Roca Sánchez, Por la clase indígena . [BACK]

29. Kapsoli, Ayllus del sol , 218-38. [BACK]

30. Hazen, "Awakening of Puno," 156-59; Ramos Zambrano, La rebelión de Huancané , 19. [BACK]

31. Sociedad Ganadera del Departamento de Puno, Memoria ; Hazen, "Awakening of Puno," 179-82, 190-92. [BACK]

32. Appleby, "Exportation and Its Aftermath," 89-90. Based on a single case from the department of Cuzco, Burga and Flores Galindo claim that small traders and peasants were on the verge of forging an alliance; see their Apogeo , 128. [BACK]

33. Sociedad Ganadera del Departamento de Puno, Memoria , 14-16; Drapoigne, La verdad , 24-30. [BACK]

34. Burga and Flores Galindo, Apogeo , 125. This demand was not surprising in the case of Lauramarca, as communities had continued to exist within the vast estate; see Plane, Le Pérou , 64-65. [BACK]

35. Florencio Diaz Bedregal, "Los levantamientos de indígenas en la provincia de Huancané" (thesis, Universidad Nacional de San Antonio Abad del Cusco, 1950), 64-71, as cited in Tamayo Herrera, Historia social e indigenismo en el Altiplano , 237. [BACK]

36. L. Gallegos, "Wancho-Lima"; Tamayo Herrera, Historia social e indigenismo en el Altiplano , 229-43; Hazen, "Awakening of Puno," 170-78; Ramos Zambrano, La rebelión de Huancané . [BACK]

37. Burga and Flores Galindo, Apogeo , 128. [BACK]

38. Law No. 605 of October 6, 1922, of Leguía's short-lived Regional Congress for Southern Peru had actually abolished the old communal offices; see Sivirichi, Derecho indígena , 123. In Cuzco the law was not heeded, and communities continued to appoint their varayocs ; see Delgado, Organización , 15-16, 57-58. For their abolition in Azángaro, see Macedo, Apuntes , 39. [BACK]

39. Hazen, "Awakening of Puno," ch. 5; Orlove, "Landlords and Officials," 119. [BACK]

40. Appleby, "Exportation and Its Aftermath," 187-212. [BACK]

41. For the case of the central sierra during the 1930s, see Wilson, "Conflict," 125-61. [BACK]

43. Romero, Historia económica del Perú , 284; Zea, "Constatación de clases"; Romero, Monografía del departamento de Puno , 235-36; Bertram, "New Thinking," 105-7. [BACK]

44. Martínez Alier, Los huacchilleros , 12; Flores Galindo, Arequipa , 129-31; Belón y Barrionuevo, La industria , 13. [BACK]

45. Burga and Reátegui, Lanas , 52. [BACK]

46. "El Comité de Salud Pública" to Cámara de Comercio de Arequipa, Sept. 30, 1923, cited in Bertram, "Modernización," 10; ''La granja modelo de Puno." [BACK]

47. Bertram, "Modernización," 10-13. [BACK]

48. In 1926 Colonel Stordy suggested to the U.S.-owned Foundation Company, a major contractor for President Leguía's public works program, that it should buy up 500,000 acres of hacienda and community lands between the Estación de Pucará and Hacienda Picotani, in effect forming one vast sheep ranch on a central swath of territory across Azángaro province; although negotiations began, the Foundation Company soon lost interest; ibid., 13. [BACK]

49. Burga and Reátegui, Lanas , 58-59. [BACK]

50. Belón y Barrionuevo, La industria , 53-54; Min. de Agricultura, Zona Agraria 12 (Puno), Subdirección de Reforma Agraria, Expediente de afectación: Sociedad Ganadera del Sur; Burga and Reátegui, Lanas , 57-59. See the announcement of Belón's candidacy in the Partido Aprista Peruano's departmental weekly, El Collao , Sept. 29, 1931, 5. [BACK]

51. Beals, Fire on the Andes , 232. [BACK]

52. Fitzgerald, "Review," 209-11. [BACK]