Introduction:
Themes and Methodology
Anyone who approaches the Argonautica for the first time, whether in the original or in translation, will find this epic unusual and challenging for a variety of reasons. First, the reader must have a detailed knowledge of the earlier versions of the Argonautic tale; he or she must also be reasonably conversant with archaic, classical, and contemporary Hellenistic literature, with scholarly debates on problematic texts, and even with the literary theories of the day. Second, the poet himself enters the narrative on several occasions to comment on or even apologize for what is taking place and interrupts the time frame of the story on many occasions with numerous etiological explanations that effectively carry the reader from the heroic age of the story into the author's present. Moreover, the narrative proceeds in a noticeably staccato movement, constantly punctuated by seemingly independent, self-contained episodes that have a structure and theme of their own. Most disconcerting of all, however, the central figure, Jason, while ultimately managing to complete his heroic quest in the course of the epic, clearly lacks the heroic stature of an Achilles or an Odysseus.
This is a curious and demanding poem. Yet in writing it, Apollonius took a great step forward in the writing of epic verse by bringing this archaic genre up to date at a time when some literary theorists, like Callimachus and Theocritus, believed—as most do today—that the epic genre was passé.[1] In response to this
[1] I shall not here enter into the issue of the supposed argument between Callimachus and Apollonius. This, I believe, has been sufficiently discreditedby M. R. Lefkowitz, "The Quarrel between Callimachus and Apollonius," ZPE 40 (1980) 1–19 (= The Lives of the Greek Poets [Baltimore 1981] 117–35).
small but influential movement, Apollonius writes what is in effect a Callimachean epic.[2] In the Argonautica , the poet takes us on an intellectual journey through Greek and non-Greek lands, culture, history, and literature. By engaging his readers' knowledge of the Hellenic culture of the past, Apollonius brings them by way of his many striking contrasts into an exciting, albeit uncertain, present in which, like the Argonauts, they must leave behind their belief in and reliance upon heroes such as Heracles and face a world run by Jasons. And yet such a Weltanschauung need not grow out of a pessimistic attitude in which the poet luxuriates in the self-pitying recognition that there are no more heroes;[3] nor does Apollonius necessarily betray or subvert with his authorial and etiological interruptions the medium through which these lost heroes had been and continued to be celebrated up to his own day.[4] Rather, at a time when greater-than-life heroes like Heracles no longer existed in the collective mind, Apollonius created for his Argonautica a real-life hero, vulnerable, dependent on the help of others, even morally questionable, but ultimately successful in his
[2] On the literary affinity between these poets, see W. Steffan, "De Veteribus et Novis Poeticis in Apollonii Rhodii Argonauticis Obviis," Meander 19 (1964) 77–87 (summary in Latin p. 121); M. G. Ciani, "Apollonio Rodio: Gli studi e le prospettive attuali," A&R 15 (1970) 80–88; T. M. Klein, "Callimachus, Apollonius Rhodius, and the Concept of the Big Book," Eranos 73 (1975) 16–25, and "Callimachus' Two Ætia Prologues," ZAnt 26 (1976) 357–61; and, more recently, G. O. Hutchinson, Hellenistic Poetry (Oxford 1988) 85–97; this issue is vigorously addressed by M. Margolies DeForest in her forthcoming book Heroes in a Toy Boat , a copy of which she has kindly sent me prior to publication. For a recent attempt to make sense of Apollonius's Rhodian exile and the esthetic discourse between Callimachus and Apollonius, see E.-R. Schwinge, Künstlichkeit von Kunst (Munich 1986) 153–54.
[3] As argued by, for example, Lawall 167, and G. Karl Galinsky, The Herakles Theme (Oxford 1972) 114.
[4] As M. Fusillo, Il tempo delle Argonautiche (Rome 1985) 136–42, and T. M. Klein, "The Role of Callimachus in the Development of the Concept of Counter-Genre," Latomus 33 (1974) 217–31, suggest; cf. most recently, S. Goldhill, The Poet's Voice: Essays on Poetics and Greek Literature (Cambridge 1991) 284–333.
From this point of view, Book 1 of the Argonautica serves as an introduction to the whole poem; for in this first book Apollonius forges a new kind of hero within the context of a recurrent thematic contrast between the man of skill and the man of strength. By the end of the book, this hero will establish himself as the best of the Argonauts, the proper leader for a group whose goal is, as Jason states, shared and not private (
[6] I shall provide my own translations for all the citations set off as extracts and for some important passages or phrases, like this one, embedded in my text for the convenience of the reader.
[7] Because of the limited focus of this study, I shall not have the opportunity to examine the role that Medea plays in the poem or to take up the issue of viewing her achievements as "heroic" in bringing about the success of theexpedition. On this, see, e.g., M. DeForest (supra n. 2); Beye 120–32; and B. Pavlock, Eros, Imitation and the Epic Tradition (Ithaca 1990) 19–68.
Jason emerges from the crisis surrounding the loss of Heracles at the end of Book 1, a crisis that threatens to scuttle the expedition, he establishes his modus operandi for the expedition and the kind of hero he will be.
In the chapters that follow, I shall examine Book 1 section by section in order of occurrence. In the Proemium (Chapter 1), Apollonius identifies not only the topic of his epic (the Argonautic expedition, which Pelias ordered Jason to lead as a means of getting rid of the one fated to kill him), but also, as I shall argue, his poetic approach. In the Catalogue (Chapter 2), Apollonius introduces the thematic contrast mentioned above by organizing the Argonauts in two groups, one headed by a man of skill (Orpheus) and the other by a man of strength (Heracles). Allusion is also made to the question that lies at the heart of the present book: Who is the best of the Argonauts? The narrative proper begins at the home of Æson (Chapter 3), where we get our first extended picture of the protagonist and his family. On the beach at Pagasae (Chapter 4), Jason begins the expedition with a call for the election of the best of the Argonauts as captain, whom he envisages as a man of diplomatic skill. Events prior to their departure suggest that Jason might well be that man. In describing their departure (Chapter 5), Apollonius again contrasts strength and skill, while at the same time alluding to the failed marriage of Peleus and Thetis, which possesses striking similarities to Jason's future marriage with Medea. In the following three episodes, Apollonius explicitly compares Jason's and Heracles' approaches to action. On Lemnos (Chapter 6), the Argonauts face the first threat to their mission and ultimate return to Greece (
sign is sent to the sleeping Jason, who performs the appropriate expiatory rites. Finally, in Mysia (Chapter 8), the timely appearance and message of Glaucus settles the divisive argument caused by the abandonment of Heracles, who shortly before revealed the extent of his enormous strength by driving the Argo by himself; in his adept handling of the angry Telamon, Jason exorcises the group of any residual bad feelings. In this, he fulfills an intrinsic part of the definition of the best of the Argonauts that he gave on the beach at Pagasae. At the end of the book, the Argonauts can proceed to Colchis without Heracles; for they have in Jason the best leader for them, one who promotes harmony so that as a unified group they can accomplish what a Heracles can do on his own as a matter of course.
Allusion and Structure
Two features of Apollonius's narrative style are particularly conspicuous both in Book 1 and throughout the rest of the poem: his ubiquitous allusion to other writers, especially Homer, and the carefully balanced structural organization of his episodes. In examining the evolution of Jason's heroic role,[8] I have found it essential to identify the various subtexts that inform our understanding of the narrative and to observe the structure of an episode that in many cases sets in relief the imitation of one or more significant passages.
Allusion
Even without the aid of the numerous studies available on Apollonian imitation, a reader familiar with the Iliad and Odyssey who comes to the Argonautica for the first time would immediately observe that the Alexandrian poet borrows heavily from the Homeric poems.[9] In composing his epic, Apollonius has successfully
[8] Hunter (2) 436–37, and T. M. Klein, "Apollonius' Jason: Hero and Scoundrel," QUCC , n.s., 13 (1983) 115–23, both provide useful summaries of scholarly opinion on the character of Jason.
[9] As Händel 7 succinctly states, "Vor allem und immer wieder ist da die Bedingung Homer." Campbell's monograph Echoes and Imitations of Early Epic in Apollonius Rhodius , cited in Abbreviations and References, vividly underscores Apollonius's debt to Homer; for a more discursive treatment, cf. J. F. Carspecken, "Apollonius Rhodius and the Homeric Epic," YCIS 13 (1952) 33–143.
created what Emile Cahen has styled the "presque homérique."[10] The poet not only employs Homer's vocabulary and syntax, either with slight variation (imitatio cum variatione ) or in inverted form (oppositio in imitando ),[11] he also reproduces variæ lectiones ,[12]hapax and dis legomena in the Iliad and Odyssey[13] and semantic unica in the Homerica ,[14] imitates Homeric ambiguities,[15] and extends the number of Homeric defective verbs.[16] Apollonius even appears to enter into debates with other scholars on issues of usage or interpretation of Homeric vocabulary by featuring a word in a context that requires his particular solution to the philological controversy.[17] In short, it is readily apparent that Apollonius had it in mind to produce a lexical analogue to the Homeric poems.[18]
[10] E. Cahen, Callimaque et son poétique (Paris 1929) 519–25; cf. M. G. Ciani, "Poesia come enigma (Considerazioni sulla poesia di Apollonio Rodio)," Scritti in onore di C. Diano (Bologna 1975) 77–111; and M. Fantuzzi, "Omero 'autore' di Apollonio Rodio: Le formule introduttive al discorso diretto," MD 13 (1986) 67–82. As M. W. Haslam, "Apollonius Rhodius and the Papyri," ICS 3 (1978) 54–61, has shown, this feature of the narrative is so conspicuous that it has even made the text of the Argonautica susceptible to corruption (e.g., when a scribe inadvertently recalls and copies a Homeric expression that Apollonius was adapting).
[11] See, for example, G. Giangrande, "'Arte Allusiva' and Alexandrian Epic Poetry," CQ 17 (1967), and "Aspects of Apollonius Rhodius' Language," Papers of the Liverpool Latin Seminar 1976 , ed. F. Cairns (Liverpool 1977), 271–91, and E. Livrea, "L'épos philologique: Apollonius de Rhodes et quelques homérismes méconnus," AC 49 (1980) 146–60.
[12] G. Giangrande, "The Utilization of Homeric Variants by Apollonius Rhodius: A Methodological Canon of Research," QUCC 15 (1973) 73–81; cf. Giangrande 8–9.
[14] See, for example, A. Ardizzoni, "'Trappole'e infortuni apolloniani," GIF 30 (1978) 275–87.
[15] See Caggia (supra n. 13) and "Un caso di bivalenza semantica in Apollonio Rodio," GIF 26 (1974) 33–40; cf. G. Giangrande, "Polisemia del linguaggio nella poesia alessandrina," QUCC 24 (1977) 97–106.
[16] See G. Giangrande, "A Passage in Apollonius," CQ 21 (1971) 146–48; cf. P. M. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria (Oxford 1972) 1.633–34.
[17] As shown, for instance, by R. Merkel, Apollonii Argonautica (Leipzig 1854) lxxi–xcviii; cf. M. Campbell, "Three Notes on Alexandrine Poetry," Hermes 102 (1974) 42–46; and E. Livrea, "Una 'tecnica allusiva' apolloniana alla luce dell'esegesi omerica alessandrina," SIFC 44 (1972) 231–43.
[18] R. F. Thomas, "Vergil's Georgics and the Art of Reference," HSCPh 90 (1986) 171–98, provides a very useful discussion on the various typesof allusion; what he and J. Farrell, Vergil's Georgics and the Traditions of Ancient Epic (Oxford 1991), say about the Georgics applies to the Argonautica as well.
It is not reasonable to assume, however, that the successful creation of a convincing "presque homérique" as a kind of poetic instantiation of his philological research was Apollonius's main goal. As it stands, the manifestly Homeric texture of the narrative naturally brings with it a whole array of generic expectations: the invocation of the Muse, the catalogue, the duel, and the heroic choice, to mention but a few. These and other canonical or celebrated features of the Homeric poems, when they occur in transmogrified form in the Argonautica , invite comparison with their archaic models. As I shall argue, Apollonius turns his audience to specific Homeric texts in order to set up a contrast between the traditional action and outlook of the ancient heroes and those of his own. The Argonautic narrative is thus not a glossographical landscape whose primary function is to provide a mythic backdrop for a scholar's academic wars, although these are waged, but rather an evocative setting for the achievement of a truly heroic feat by a less than heroic figure who turns out to be a kind of Alexandrian Yankee in King Pelias's court. In what follows, I shall study the parallels and contrasts between the Hellenistic actors and their literary stage by focusing on the particular words, phrases, or lines whose wider settings entail situations that are similar to, identical to, or exactly the opposite of the new Argonautic context. For often when we see the heroes and heroines of the Argonautica in contexts reflecting specific Homeric incidents, the stark difference between the two worlds becomes all the more marked. Herein lies the special power and attraction of the allusive technique.
I shall call special attention to the more complex instances of allusion where Apollonius "contaminates"—to use the term suggested by Terence (cf. An. 16) and adopted by many modern scholars[19] —several passages that one might describe as non ita
[19] See, for example, I. M. Le M. Du Quesnay, "From Polyphemus to Corydon" [p. 212, n. 86], and F. Cairns, "Self-imitation within a Generic Framework: Ovid, Amores 2.9 and 3.11 and the renuntiatio amoris " [p. 121], both in Creative Imitation and Latin Literature , ed. D. West and T. Woodman (London 1979). Although contaminare in context is a negative term and refers tothe process of "spoiling plays for other dramatists . . . [by] unfairly reducing the store of Greek plays available for adoption" (thus S. Goldberg, Understanding Terence [Princeton 1986] 95), it is a convenient term for describing the practice of conflating several models into a new and original piece. Goldberg's analysis of the effects of contaminatio in the Adelphoe and Eunuchus (ibid. 97–122) shows how effective such a conflation of models was in the Terentian plays.
dissimili argumento (ibid. 11). The episode in which Apollonius describes Jason leaving home offers a good example of such contaminatio (examined at length in Chapter 3). The poet casts the response to Jason's departure in such a way that he recalls various passsages in the Iliad where Homeric characters were responding to the death (actual and threatened) of Hector; in particular, Jason's mother, Alcimede, calls Andromache to mind. Moreover, when portraying Alcimede's desperate reaction to her son's imminent departure from home, Apollonius compares her to a young girl "falling upon and embracing" (
Apollonius by no means restricts his glance to the Homeric poems. The influence of practically all areas of previous and contemporary literature and scholarship can be observed, although understandably to a lesser degree than that of Homer. Of particular note are Pindar's fourth Pythian , Attic tragedy, and the poetry of Callimachus, especially the Ætia and Hecale .[20] The traditional heroic Jason to be found in Pindar's account of the Argonautic expedition told in the fourth Pythian stands in sharp contrast with Apollonius's Jason. In the opening of the poem, Apollonius appears to call this contrast to the reader's attention (Chapter 1).
[20] With regard to the influence of the Hecale on the Argonautica , one should now consult A. S. Hollis, Callimachus: Hecale (Oxford 1990) 27, 388.
In the case of tragedy,[21] in addition to introducing tragic vocabulary into his epic,[22] Apollonius imported the tragic debate and monologue, especially in Book 3. Foremost among the Athenian plays that inform our reading of the Argonautica is Euripides' Medea . R. L. Hunter well summarizes the importance of this play in the reading of the Alexandrian epic:[23]
A[pollonius] assumes in his readers an intimate knowledge of this famous play, and its action hangs over Arg. even when it is not specifically recalled. More significant than the actual foreshadowing of Jason's abandonment of Medea through the figure of Ariadne and of Medea's infanticide is the constant interplay between the arguments and gestures of the two texts; A[pollonius] models his Jason and his Medea with an eye to their "subsequent" history in Euripides' tragedy. The two texts become mutually explicative; Arg. shows us how the origins of the tragedy lay far back, and the tragedy lends deep resonance and "tragic" irony to the events of the epic.
The "'subsequent' history in Euripides' tragedy" will surface in Jason's departure from home (Chapter 3), the sailing of the Argo from Pagasae (Chapter 5), and Jason's encounter with Hypsipyle on Lemnos (Chapter 6).[24] There are a number of verbal points of contact between the Argonautica and the surviving poems and fragments of Callimachus. Two passages in Book 1 of the Argonautica that seem to reflect Callimachean models will
[21] Cf. F. Stössl, Apollonios Rhodios: Interpretationen zur Erzählungskunst und Quellenverwertung (Bern 1941), who treats at length Apollonius's debt to Athenian drama—with a heavy hand, in my opinion.
[22] Cf., for instance, A. Ardizzoni, "Note apolloniane," Maia 20 (1968) 14, and M. Fantuzzi, "Varianti d'autore nelle Argonautiche d'Apollonio Rodio," A&A 29 (1983) 146–61.
[23] Hunter 18–19; cf. also Hunter's paper "Medea's Flight: The Fourth Book of the Argonautica," CQ 37 (1987) 129–39; and most recently A. R. Dyck, "On the Way from Colchis to Corinth: Medea in Book 4 of the 'Argonautica,'" Hermes 117 (1989) 455–70, and V. Knight, "Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 4.167–70 and Euripides' Medea," CQ 41 (1991) 248–50.
[24] Surprisingly, I have not found correspondences, verbal or contextual, between the Argonautica and fragments of fifth-century tragedies dealing with the Argonautic myth (e.g., Euripides' Hypsipyle ) particularly helpful in interpreting the Hellenistic epic or Jason's heroic status therein. I suspect that if more were available, this situation would change considerably. For a list of Athenian plays that deal with the Argonautic cycle, see Vian xxxvi–vii.
receive special attention: Jason's prayer to Apollo on the beach at Pagasae (Chapter 4) and the celebration of Rhea's mysteries on Mount Dindymon (Chapter 7). Finally, it would appear that the Lyde of Antimachus had considerable influence on Apollonius,[25] but because the fragmentary remains of the poem are so few we shall never know how the recollection of this elegiac narrative might have affected the interpretation of the Alexandrian epic.
The Argonautica is a poem rich in allusions to so many different writers composing different works in a variety of genres, including even so unexpected a writer as Herodotus (Chapter 5), that it would be impossible to take every reference into account in the present discussion.[26] Rather, as I mentioned above, I shall concentrate on those imitations that I believe invite the reader to recall the wider context of the word, phrase, line, or lines that the poet has worked into the fabric of his narrative. This allusive technique presupposes an audience that possesses, and actively engages in their reading of the poem, a comprehensive knowledge of past and contemporary literature in order to see the important suggestions being made between the lines. By relying as heavily as he does on the subtext to fill in the interstices of the narrative proper, Apollonius shares the burden of composition with the reader. Approaching the Argonautica without a considerable literary background, a reader would surely find Apollonius's poem a rather dull adventure story embedded in an antiquarian's travelogue, relieved only by a few interesting moments in Book 3 when Medea falls in love; the doctus lector , on the other hand, encounters not another mediocre epic about another hero on yet another legendary quest but a sophisticated poem whose double-tiered narrative informs and suggests, and whose meaning can be grasped only by a creative reading that sees both levels of the text.
[25] See Wyss xlviii ff.; for examples of Antimachus's influence on Book 1, see, for example, lines 243 (» fr. 72 Wyss), 1008 (» fr. 71 Wyss), 1115–16 (» fr. 53 Wyss), 1235 (» fr. 44 Wyss).
[26] Campbell has done a remarkable job of collecting many of these in his useful index, and the different commentators (Mooney, Ardizzoni, Fränkel, Vian) have recorded other archaic, classical, and Hellenistic reminiscences that have been observed to date.
Structure
As scholars have observed, Apollonius paid special attention to the arrangement of his episodes.[27] Although one might disagree on the configuration of a particular episode or on a section within, it should be clear to anyone who looks at the flow of the narrative that Apollonius organized his material in the symmetrically balanced ring-composition form; that is, one or more things mentioned at the beginning of a section or subsection are echoed at the end. He advertises this structural principle in the Proemium and continues it with great regularity throughout the poem. Naturally, if he applied the straightforward ring (A–B–A ) in every case, the movement of the poem would become overly regular and eventually soporific. Instead, the poet varies the basic ring in a number of ways. The ring can be extended (e.g., A–B–C–D–C –B –A ; cf. Chapter 3) or its main components can have balanced structures particular to themselves (e.g., A [a–b–a ]–B–A [a–b–c–d–c –b –a ]; cf. Chapter 6). The structural symmetry at times becomes so involved that even the subsections themselves have a ring format (e.g., A [a{a –b –a }–b{a –b –a }]–B–A [a–b–c–b –a ]; cf. Chapter 8). Not every episode possesses a neat, thematically balanced structure; yet even in such episodes, subsections can be found with a symmetrical organization (e.g., A [a–b–a ]–B [a–b–a ]–C [a–b–c–d–e]; cf. Chapter 4). In short, Apollonius uses the
[27] In addition to passing comments regarding Apollonius's symmetrical structure in or within specific episodes (e.g., Blumberg 17; Vian 255 ad 579; Levin 38; A. Köhnken, Apollonios Rhodios und Theokrit [Göttingen 1965]17–25), there are three studies that have looked exclusively at this aspect of the Argonautic narrative: Hurst; P. Thierstein, Bau der Szenen in den Argonautika des Apollonios Rhodios (Bern 1971); and J. Preininger, Der Aufbau der Argonautika des Apollonios Rhodios (Vienna 1976). Hurst's analysis is by far the most exhaustive (he deals with the entire poem), sensitive, and informative of the three. Thierstein too makes many fine comments on the interrelationships between elements in the episodes that he discusses (4.1232–1619, 1.1153–1362, 2.720–898, 2.899–1029, 4.109–82). Both, however, have created and employed a complex system of terms that gives undue importance to a structural approach that is fundamentally simple. In the Argonautica , the medium is not the message. Preininger pushes his structural interpretation to the extreme, suggesting that the structure of the poem is a reflection of the poet's model, the temple of Apollo at Bassae, whose dimensions he calculated and imitated in such a way that 100 verses equals 100 centimeters; in their various combinations, he argues, the verses are to be read as musical notation.
ancient ring-composition technique throughout the book in a variety of configurations.[28] This asymmetrical symmetry, as it were, enlivens the flow of the narrative and provides clear evidence of the extraordinary control that Apollonius exerted over his narrative, which embraces so vast an amount of learning, both literary and antiquarian.[29]
Discussions of structure can be tedious, and I shall keep mine to a minimum. As I mentioned above, I do not aver that the structure of the episodes is significant per se ; nor do I think that it necessarily reveals the soul of the writer or his time. Rather, I have found that when dealing with the Argonautica , recognition of the structure can be almost as crucial as the identification of an allusion; for the regularity of the structure in a poem as involved and erudite as this allows the reader to observe the important thematic and conceptual correspondences that the poet wants to highlight. Important images, dramatic moments, and/or allusions often lie in the central positions of the various rings. Very simply put, by locating the focal points of the rings the reader can isolate a significant element or elements of the narrative. Therefore, for each episode I shall briefly discuss the structure, using the system employed above: I employ capital letters to mark the main sections of the episode (A–B–C), minuscule for the subsections (a–b–c), Greek minuscule for the sub-subsections (a –b –g ), and italics in all three to mark corresponding sections (A–B–A , a–b–a , a –b –a ). Although such a system may appear clumsy, the results will justify the attention given this technical feature of the poem.
Each chapter begins with a short introduction. After I analyze the structure of an episode and establish what its focal points are, I shall examine the sections and subsections in the order of occurrence, except in Chapter 3, where it proved to be more useful to start in the middle. The discussion of each episode will conclude with a summary statement in which I pull together the various
[28] On ring composition in archaic literature, cf., for example, B. A. van Groningen, La composition littéraire archaïque grecque (Amsterdam 1958); and J. H. Gaisser, "A Structural Analysis of the Digressions in the Iliad and Odyssey," HSCPh 73 (1969) 1–43.
[29] On the tension between these two features of the narrative, cf. Händel 7–8, Hurst 9–35.
strands of my argument and relate them to the larger and more important issue of Book 1: the nature and identity of the best of the Argonauts.[30]
It may seem odd that the present study of the hero of the Argonautica is limited to Book 1 and that a sequential reading of the text has been preferred over a thematic analysis. The narrative of this book and of the poem in general, however, encourages the approach I have taken. First, it is at the conclusion of Book 1 that Apollonius identifies Jason as the hero of the epic and fully exposes the nature of his heroism in contradistinction to the quintessential archaic hero, Heracles. As such, the book has a unity and integrity that, not having been observed, merits our attention. Readers of the Argonautica must come to terms with who Jason is and what he represents within the epic tradition before leaving the familiar Hellenic topography and entering the strange world that lies beyond the crashing Symplegades. Second, the identification of the "best" among the Argonauts unfolds gradually and in a linear fashion, beginning from the Proemium and extending through to the final moment of the book; each episode provides another angle from which to view Jason, all heading to a disquieting but inevitable conclusion.
[30] The text I use throughout is that of Vian unless I specify otherwise.