1 Before Independence
1. Antonio Gutiérrez y Ulloa, Estado general de la provincia de San Salvador; Reyno de Guatemala (año de 1870) (San Salvador: Dirección de Publicaciones, 1962). [BACK]
2. The territory of the intendancy roughly corresponded to the current territory of El Salvador with the important exception of the Alcaldía de Sonsonate, on the border with Guatemala, which became part of the country in 1823. [BACK]
3. Rodolfo Barón Castro, La población de El Salvador (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 1942), pp.235 and 446. This figure includes the Alcaldía Mayor de Sonsonate, which was not part of the intendancy but after 1823 was incorporated to El Salvador. In 1796 the population of Sonsonate was 24,684. [BACK]
4. Thomas Marc Fiehrer, "The Baron of Carondelet as Agent of Bourbon Reform: A Study of Spanish Colonial Administration in the Years of the French
Revolution," 2 vols. (Ph.D. dissertation, Tulane University, 1977), 1: 105. This dissertation provides a detailed account of colonial administration in San Salvador during the Bourbon reforms. [BACK]
5. Miles Wortman, "Government Revenue and Economic Trends in Central America," HAHR 55 (February 1975): 256. [BACK]
6. For information on this phenomenon see Gustavo Palma Murga, "Núcleos de poder local y relaciones familiares en la Ciudad de Guatemala a finales del siglo XVIII," Mesoamérica 7 (December 1986): 241-308; and the chapter on Central America in Diana Balmori, Stuart F. Voss, and Miles Wortman, Notable Family Networks in Latin America (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1984). [BACK]
7. Quoted by Manuel Rubio Sánchez, Historia del añil o xiquilite en Centro América , 2 vols. (San Salvador: Ministerio de Educación, 1976), 1: 282. [BACK]
8. Quoted by Manuel Rubio Sánchez, Historia del añil , 1: 234. [BACK]
9. Antonio Gutiérrez y Ulloa, Estado general , p. 134. [BACK]
10. The total was 626,600 lbs. Manuel Rubio Sánchez, Historia del añil , 1: 358. [BACK]
11. Miles Wortman, "Government Revenue and Economic Trends in Central America, 1787-1819," HAHR 55 (May 1975): 256. [BACK]
12. Domingo Juarros, A Statistical and Commercial History of the Kingdom of Guatemala , trans. John Baily (London: John Hearne, 1823), p. 33. [BACK]
13. Antonio Gutiérrez y Ulloa, Estado general , p. 146. [BACK]
14. Gustavo Palma Murga, "Núcleos de poder," p. 282. [BACK]
15. Antonio Gutiérrez y Ulloa, Estado general , p. 146; and Thomas Marc Fiehrer, "The Baron of Carondelet," 1: 274.
16. Ibid., 1: 285.
17. Ibid., 1: 275. [BACK]
15. Antonio Gutiérrez y Ulloa, Estado general , p. 146; and Thomas Marc Fiehrer, "The Baron of Carondelet," 1: 274.
16. Ibid., 1: 285.
17. Ibid., 1: 275. [BACK]
15. Antonio Gutiérrez y Ulloa, Estado general , p. 146; and Thomas Marc Fiehrer, "The Baron of Carondelet," 1: 274.
16. Ibid., 1: 285.
17. Ibid., 1: 275. [BACK]
18. Pedro Cortés y Larraz, "Descripción geográfico-moral de la Provincia de San Salvador en la diócesis de Gohatemala," in República de El Salvador, Ministerio de Relaciones e Instrucción Pública, ed., Colección de documentos importantes relativos a la República de El Salvador (San Salvador: Imprenta Nacional, 1921), p. 109.
19. Ibid., p. 219. [BACK]
18. Pedro Cortés y Larraz, "Descripción geográfico-moral de la Provincia de San Salvador en la diócesis de Gohatemala," in República de El Salvador, Ministerio de Relaciones e Instrucción Pública, ed., Colección de documentos importantes relativos a la República de El Salvador (San Salvador: Imprenta Nacional, 1921), p. 109.
19. Ibid., p. 219. [BACK]
20. Thomas Marc Fiehrer, "The Baron of Carondelet," 1: 292. Gustavo Palma Murga, "Núcleos de poder," p. 276.
21. Ibid., 1: 300.
22. Ibid., 1: 298. [BACK]
20. Thomas Marc Fiehrer, "The Baron of Carondelet," 1: 292. Gustavo Palma Murga, "Núcleos de poder," p. 276.
21. Ibid., 1: 300.
22. Ibid., 1: 298. [BACK]
20. Thomas Marc Fiehrer, "The Baron of Carondelet," 1: 292. Gustavo Palma Murga, "Núcleos de poder," p. 276.
21. Ibid., 1: 300.
22. Ibid., 1: 298. [BACK]
23. Antonio Gutiérrez y Ulloa, Estado general , pp. 10 and 146. [BACK]
24. Adriaan C. Van Oss, Catholic Colonialism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 144. [BACK]
25. Geoffrey A. Cabat, "The Consolidation of 1804 in Guatemala," The Americas 28 (July 1971): 29. "Historical Detail of the Taxes and Contributions Which Formed the Receipt of the Royal Hacienda," prepared by the Royal Tribunal of Accounts in 1818. A copy of this report can be found in Foreign Office Series 15, vol. 3, fol. 25-46. Henceforth this series cited as FO 15 (volume number). This document was given to George Thompson, the British envoy, by José del Valle. [BACK]
26. Thomas Marc Fiehrer, "The Baron of Carondelet," 1: 298-299. [BACK]
27. Adriaan C. Van Oss, Catholic Colonialism , p. 145. [BACK]
28. Miles Wortman, Government and Society in Central America, 1680-1840 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), p. 174. [BACK]
29. Thomas Marc Fiehrer, "The Baron de Carondelet," 1: 266. [BACK]
30. José María Peinado, "Apuntamientos sobre la agricultura y comercio del Reyno de Guatemala que el Señor Dr. Don Antonio Larrazábal Diputado en las Cortes Extraordinarias de la nación por la misma ciudad pidió al Real Consulado en la Junta de Gobierno de 20 de Octubre de 1810," in Carlos Meléndez, ed., Textos fundamentales de la independencia centroamericana (San José, Costa Rica: Editorial EDUCA, 1971), p. 75. [BACK]
31. Manuel José Arce, Memorias del General Manuel José Arce (San Salvador: Ministerio de Cultura, 1959), p. 271. [BACK]
32. José María Peinado, "Apuntamientos sobre la agricultura," p. 76. [BACK]
33. Troy S. Floyd describes the system in detail in his article, "The Indigo Merchant: Promoter of Central American Economic Development, 1750-1808," Business History Review 39 (Winter 1965): 466-487. The Costa Rican case is described in Thomas L. Karnes, "The Origins of Costa Rican Federalism," The Americas 15. For a contemporary description see José María Peinado, "Apuntamientos sobre la agricultura," p. 76. Insights on the merchant community can be gained by reading the chapter on Central America in Diana Balmori. et al., Notable Family Networks . [BACK]
34. Gustavo Palma Murga, "Núcleos de poder local," p. 289. [BACK]
35. For information on trade routes see Julio C. Pinto Soria, "El valle central de Guatemala (1524-1821): Un análisis acerca del origen histórico-económico del regionalismo en Centroamérica," Anuario de Estudios Centroamericanos 14 (1-2): 75-77. [BACK]
36. Miles Wortman, Government and Society , p. 192. [BACK]
37. Troy S. Floyd, "The Guatemalan Merchants, the Government and the Provincianos," HAHR 41 (February 1961): 102. [BACK]
38. Robert S. Smith, "Indigo Production and Trade in Colonial Guatemala," HAHR 39 (May 1959): 194.
39. Ibid., p. 196.
40. Ibid., p. 200.
41. Ibid., p. 202.
42. Ibid., p. 204.
43. Ibid., p. 204. [BACK]
38. Robert S. Smith, "Indigo Production and Trade in Colonial Guatemala," HAHR 39 (May 1959): 194.
39. Ibid., p. 196.
40. Ibid., p. 200.
41. Ibid., p. 202.
42. Ibid., p. 204.
43. Ibid., p. 204. [BACK]
38. Robert S. Smith, "Indigo Production and Trade in Colonial Guatemala," HAHR 39 (May 1959): 194.
39. Ibid., p. 196.
40. Ibid., p. 200.
41. Ibid., p. 202.
42. Ibid., p. 204.
43. Ibid., p. 204. [BACK]
38. Robert S. Smith, "Indigo Production and Trade in Colonial Guatemala," HAHR 39 (May 1959): 194.
39. Ibid., p. 196.
40. Ibid., p. 200.
41. Ibid., p. 202.
42. Ibid., p. 204.
43. Ibid., p. 204. [BACK]
38. Robert S. Smith, "Indigo Production and Trade in Colonial Guatemala," HAHR 39 (May 1959): 194.
39. Ibid., p. 196.
40. Ibid., p. 200.
41. Ibid., p. 202.
42. Ibid., p. 204.
43. Ibid., p. 204. [BACK]
38. Robert S. Smith, "Indigo Production and Trade in Colonial Guatemala," HAHR 39 (May 1959): 194.
39. Ibid., p. 196.
40. Ibid., p. 200.
41. Ibid., p. 202.
42. Ibid., p. 204.
43. Ibid., p. 204. [BACK]
44. Robert S. Smith, "Origins of the Consulado of Guatemala," HAHR 26 (May 1946): 156. Gustavo Palma Murga, "Núcleos de poder local," passim. [BACK]
45. Troy S. Floyd, "The Guatemalan Merchants," pp. 90-110. [BACK]
46. See Adriaan C. Van Oss, "The Self-Sufficient Spanish Colonies in Central America," Mesoamérica 3 (June 1982): 67-89. [BACK]
47. Héctor Lindo-Fuentes, "Nineteenth-Century Economic History of El Salvador" (Ph. D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1984), p. 19. [BACK]
48. Miles Wortman, "Government Revenue," p. 253. [BACK]
49. Manuel Montúfar, Memorias para la historia de la revolución de Centro América (Jalapa, Mexico: Aburto y Blanco, 1832), p. XXX. [BACK]
50. This figure is based on the average for the period 1814-1818. ''Historical Detail," FO 15-3, fol. 37-39. [BACK]
51. Population estimates were always unreliable. I arrived at the 16-percent estimate by using Juarro's and Gutiérrez y Ulloa's figures. It would be surprising if the population of El Salvador was significantly less than 12 percent. The tax data are in Miles Wortman, Government and Society , p. 150. [BACK]
52. Between 1812 and 1817 the average revenue was only 776,274 pesos for all Central America (Thompson to Foreign Office, FO 15-1). A simple calculation shows that this is a very low figure if compared to that for other regions during the same period. If we assume that the income per capita for Central America was equal to a low estimate of 12.4 pesos, the GNP for the whole region would have been 24,800,000 (using Thompson's population estimate of 2,000,000 people). According to these data, revenue was around 3 percent of colonial income, and this is an upper-bound estimate. John Coatsworth estimates that during the same period New Spain, which had a higher per-capita income, collected from 10 to 12 percent of income in taxes, a figure similar to that of England. John Coatsworth, From Backwardness to Underdevelopment: The Mexican Economy 1800-1910 (forthcoming). [BACK]
53. See Miles Wortman, "Government Revenue," passim. [BACK]
54. Manuel Montúfar, Memorias , p. XXX. [BACK]
55. Thompson to Foreign Office, FO 15-3; and Miles Wortman, Government and Society , p. 153. [BACK]
56. Thomas Marc Fiehrer, "The Baron de Carondelet," 1: 290. [BACK]
57. Geoffrey A. Cabat, "The Consolidation of 1804," p. 28. [BACK]
58. Antonio Gutiérrez y Ulloa, Estado general , p. 146. [BACK]
59. Roberto Molina y Morales, Los precursores de la independencia (San Salvador: Editorial Delgado, 1981), p. 273. [BACK]
60. Thomas Marc Fiehrer, "The Baron de Carondelet," 1: 263. [BACK]
61. Domingo Juarros, A Statistical and Commercial History , p. 30. [BACK]
62. See José Antonio Fernández, "Al estilo de Vizcaya. La producción de hierro en el Reino de Guatemala" (unpublished mimeo, San José, Costa Rica).
63. Ibid., p. 16.
64. Ibid., p. 46.
65. Ibid., p. 52. [BACK]
62. See José Antonio Fernández, "Al estilo de Vizcaya. La producción de hierro en el Reino de Guatemala" (unpublished mimeo, San José, Costa Rica).
63. Ibid., p. 16.
64. Ibid., p. 46.
65. Ibid., p. 52. [BACK]
62. See José Antonio Fernández, "Al estilo de Vizcaya. La producción de hierro en el Reino de Guatemala" (unpublished mimeo, San José, Costa Rica).
63. Ibid., p. 16.
64. Ibid., p. 46.
65. Ibid., p. 52. [BACK]
62. See José Antonio Fernández, "Al estilo de Vizcaya. La producción de hierro en el Reino de Guatemala" (unpublished mimeo, San José, Costa Rica).
63. Ibid., p. 16.
64. Ibid., p. 46.
65. Ibid., p. 52. [BACK]
66. The total population of Spaniards was 4,729, 1,581 of which lived in Metapán. Antonio Gutiérrez y Ulloa, Estado general , p. 146. [BACK]
67. See Troy S. Floyd, "Bourbon Palliatives and the Central American Mining Industry, 1765-1800," The Americas 18 (October 1961): 103-125. [BACK]
68. Domingo Juarros, A Statistical and Commercial History , p. 33. [BACK]
69. Manuel Rubio Sánchez, Historia del añil , 2: 110.
70. Ibid., 2: 111. [BACK]
69. Manuel Rubio Sánchez, Historia del añil , 2: 110.
70. Ibid., 2: 111. [BACK]
71. The process changed very little with the passage of time. Robert Smith in "Indigo Production," p. 183, has a description based on a late eighteenth-century document. That description is remarkably similar to the ones found in J. LaFerrière, De Paris à Guatémala, Notes De Voyages au Centre Amérique, 1866-1875 (Paris: Garnier Frères, 1877), p. 314; and in a consular report sent by the American Consul in 1885: Duke, Despatch to Department of State, Novem-
ber 15, 1885, Despatches from United States Consuls in San Salvador, El Salvador, 1868-1906, National Archives, Washington, D.C. (This collection hereafter cited as DUSC, SS.) [BACK]
72. Antonio Gutiérrez y Ulloa, Estado general , p. 137. [BACK]
73. Robert S. Smith, "Indigo Production," p. 186. [BACK]
74. Manuel Rubio Sánchez, Historia del anl , 2: 82. [BACK]
75. The document is a statement by the Alcalde Mayor de San Salvador about the Indians who worked under the repartimiento system for indigo haciendas. The document is reproduced by Manuel Rubio Sánchez, Historia del añil , 2: 139. [BACK]
76. Robert S. Smith, "Indigo Production," p. 189. [BACK]
77. Harry E. Cross, "Living Standards in Rural Nineteenth-Century Mexico: Zacatecas 1820-80," Journal of Latin American Studies 10 (May 1978): 7. [BACK]
78. John H. Coatsworth, "Anotaciones sobre la producción de alimentos durante el Porfiriato," Historia Mexicana 26 (October-December 1976): 176. [BACK]
79. In 1770 Cortés y Larraz listed 442 haciendas, in 1807 Gutiérrez y Ulloa listed 442, and in 1820 Marticorena counted 400. David Browning, El Salvador, Landscape and Society (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), p. 83. None of them included the Alcaldía Mayor de Sonsonate in their calculations since that territory was not added to what today is El Salvador until after independence. [BACK]
80. Robert S. Smith, "Indigo Production," p. 186. [BACK]
81. At the end of the colonial period the Central American economies had developed a certain degree of complementarity. See Ralph Lee Woodward, Jr., "The Economy of Central America at the Close of the Colonial Period," in Estudios del Reino de Guatemala , Duncan Kinkead, ed. (Sevilla: Escuela de Estudios Hispanoamericanos, 1985). [BACK]
82. David Browning, El Salvador , p. 84. It is not clear whether Browning's estimate, which is derived from Gutiérrez y Ulloa's data, is an upper or a lower bound. In fact, Gutiérrez y Ulloa's report gives information on hacienda size on very few occasions. Browning's estimate is certainly the best that can be obtained from the source, but it should be kept in mind that it is based on very limited information. [BACK]
83. Troy S. Floyd, "The Guatemalan Merchants," p. 99. [BACK]
84. Robert S. Smith, "Indigo Production," p. 193.
85. Ibid., p. 193.
86. Ibid., p. 208.
87. Ibid., p. 207.
88. Ibid., p. 195. [BACK]
84. Robert S. Smith, "Indigo Production," p. 193.
85. Ibid., p. 193.
86. Ibid., p. 208.
87. Ibid., p. 207.
88. Ibid., p. 195. [BACK]
84. Robert S. Smith, "Indigo Production," p. 193.
85. Ibid., p. 193.
86. Ibid., p. 208.
87. Ibid., p. 207.
88. Ibid., p. 195. [BACK]
84. Robert S. Smith, "Indigo Production," p. 193.
85. Ibid., p. 193.
86. Ibid., p. 208.
87. Ibid., p. 207.
88. Ibid., p. 195. [BACK]
84. Robert S. Smith, "Indigo Production," p. 193.
85. Ibid., p. 193.
86. Ibid., p. 208.
87. Ibid., p. 207.
88. Ibid., p. 195. [BACK]
89. In 1803 the Bodegas were moved to Izabal. [BACK]
90. Miles Wortman, Government and Society , p. 318. [BACK]
91. Manuel Rubio Sánchez, Historia del Añil , 1: 357.
92. Ibid., 1: 357-358. José María Peinado, "Apuntamientos sobre la agricultura," p. 77. Manuel Rubio Sánchez, Historia del puerto de la Santísima Trinidad de Sonsonate o Acajutla (San Salvador: Editorial Universitaria, 1977), pp. 273-331. [BACK]
91. Manuel Rubio Sánchez, Historia del Añil , 1: 357.
92. Ibid., 1: 357-358. José María Peinado, "Apuntamientos sobre la agricultura," p. 77. Manuel Rubio Sánchez, Historia del puerto de la Santísima Trinidad de Sonsonate o Acajutla (San Salvador: Editorial Universitaria, 1977), pp. 273-331. [BACK]
93. Quoted by Italo López Vallecillos, Gerardo Barrios y su tiempo , 2 vols. (San Salvador: Dirección General de Publicaciones, 1967), 1: 45. [BACK]
94. Miles Wortman, Government and Society , pp. 185-188. [BACK]
95. Henry Dunn, Guatimala or the United Provinces of Central America in 1827-28 (New York: G. & C. Carvill, 1828), p. 211; and Redactor General , July 13, 1825. [BACK]
96. Quoted in Manuel Rubio Sánchez, Historia del Añil , 1: 371. [BACK]
97. Miles Wortman, Government and Society , p. 192. [BACK]
98. Manuel Vela, "Informe (inédito hasta ahora) del Ministro Tesorero de las Reales Cajas de Guatemala, acerca del estado deficiente del Erario antes y después del 15 de septiembre de 1821—Madrid, 11 de marzo de 1824." ASGHG 12 (September 1935): 4. [BACK]
99. Thompson to FO, December 3, 1825, FO 15-1 fol. 187. [BACK]
100. Marcial Zebadua, "Memoria presentada al Congreso General de los Estados Federados de Centro América," in Documentos y datos históricos y estadísticos de la República de El Salvador (San Salvador: Imprenta Nacional, 1926), p. 150. [BACK]
101. Miles Wortman, "Government Revenue," p. 254. [BACK]