1. Thomas E. Chavez, Manuel Alvarez, 1794-1856: A Southwestern Biography (Niwot, Colo.: University of Colorado Press, 1990), 87-103. [BACK]

2. David J. Sandoval, "Gnats, Goods, and Greasers: Mexican Merchants on the Santa Fe Trail ," Journal of the West 28, no. 2 (1989): 22-31. [BACK]

3. Mary Douglas, Natural Symbols (New York: Vantage Books, 1970), 125-139. [BACK]

4. Items traded to Native Americans by Europeans, and between Native American groups prior to European contact, have typically been discussed in one of several places: in museum documents; in the professional publications prepared by historians, archaeologists, and anthropologists; in publications directed at private collectors of such material; and, occasionally, in publications such as newspaper and magazine articles aimed at a more general audience. Although the treatments of Native American trade goods by collectors and in the popular media are not without a certain relevance to our central concern, my attention will be restricted to scholarly studies of trade goods. The works I have selected for evaluation are relevant to the interpretation of the meaning of such material. There is little scholarship that deals with this. That which exists tends to fall within one of two groups: a very small number of highly theoretical works that deal with few concrete examples, and a very large number of descriptive writings that mention the symbolic value of trade items almost in passing. [BACK]

5. Arthur J. Ray, Indians in the Fur Trade: Their Role as Trappers, Hunters, and Middlemen in the Lands Southwest of Hudson Bay, 1660-1870 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1974); Frank McNitt, The Indian Traders (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1962); and George Irving Quimby, Indian Culture and European Trade Goods (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1966). [BACK]

7. Richard Harland, Superstructuralism: The Philosophy of Structuralism and Post-Structuralism (London: Methuen, 1987), 13. [BACK]

8. Ibid., 16. [BACK]

9. Guy Prentice, "Marine Shells as Wealth Items in Mississippian Societies," Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 12, no. 2 (1987): 211. [BACK]

10. Ian Hodder, Symbols In Action: Ethnoarchaeological Studies of Material Cul ture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 211. [BACK]

11. Prentice, "Marine Shells," 196. [BACK]

12. Jane F. Safer and Frances M. Gill, Spirals From the Seas: An Anthropological Look at Shells (New York: Clarkson N. Potter, 1982), 55-56. [BACK]

13. Ibid., 97. [BACK]

14. Prentice, "Marine Shells," 198. [BACK]

15. Ibid., 194. Among the well-established theorists cited by Prentice are Elman Service, Marshall Sahlins, and Marvin Harris. It is notable, however, that some of these individuals, in particular Sahlins and Service, have retreated from a strictly "processual" position (which assumes cultural evolution driven by increasingly efficient ethoeconomic adaptation) over the past decade. Nonetheless, Prentice explained accurately the basic ideas common to the cited work of these individuals. [BACK]

16. Marcel Mauss, The Gift: The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies (New York: W. W. Norton, 1990), xvi. [BACK]

17. Ibid., 3. [BACK]

18. Ibid. [BACK]

19. Ibid., 72. [BACK]

20. Ibid., 75. [BACK]

21. Bronislaw Malinowski, Argonauts of the Western Pacific (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1922). [BACK]

22. Ibid., 512. [BACK]

23. Mauss, The Gift, 27. [BACK]

24. Anthony Giddens, Emile Durkheim: Selected Writings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972), 6. [BACK]

25. Emile Durkheim, The Division of Labor in Society (New York: The Free Press, 1965), 143. [BACK]

26. Mircea Eliade, The Myth of the Eternal Return: or, Cosmos and Hitory (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1954; Rites and Symbols of Initiation (New York: Harper and Row, 1958); and The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion: The Significance of Religious Mvth, Symbolism, and Ritual Within Lip and Culture, trans. Willard R. Trask (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1959). [BACK]

27. Donald John Blakeslee, The plains Interband Trade System: An Ethnobistoric and Archeological Investigation, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 1975; Joseph Jablow, The Cheyenne Indian in Plains Indian Trade Relations, 1795-1840, Monographs of the American Ethnological Society (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1950). [BACK]

28. Jordan Paper, Offering Smoke: The Sacred Pipe and Native American Religion (Moscow: University of Idaho Press, 1988), 13. [BACK]

29. Joseph C. Winter, "Prehistoric and Historic Native American Tobacco Use: An Overview," unpublished paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Society. for American Archaeology, New Orleans, 1991. Johannes Wilbert, "Magico-Religious Use of Tobacco Among South American Indians," in Cannabis and Culture , ed. V. Rubin (Paris: Mouton, 1975), frontispiece. [BACK]

30. Ibid., 180-181. [BACK]

31. Mary J. Adair, "Tobacco on the Plains: Historical Use, Ethnographic Accounts, and Archaeological Evidence," paper presented at the 1991 Conference of the Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans, 1991, PP. 1-2. [BACK]

32. Winter, "Prehistoric and Historic," 10. [BACK]

33. Weston La Barre, "Old and New World Narcotics: Statistical Questions and an Ethnological reply," Economic Botany 24 (1970): 73-80; Wilbert, "Magico-Religious Use"; Peter T. Furst, Hallucinogens and Culture (San Francisco: Chandler and Sharp, 1976); Alexander D. von Gernet, The Transculturation of the Amerind Pipe/Tobacco/Smoking Complex and Its Impact on the Intellectual Boundaries Between Savagery and Civilization 1535-1935, unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, McGill University, 1988. [BACK]

34. Winter, "Prehistoric and Historic," 14. [BACK]

35. Ibid., 10-12. [BACK]

36. Janet LeCompte, Pueblo, Hardscrabble, Greenhorn (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1978), 10. [BACK]

37. Ibid., 88. [BACK]

38. Ibid., 89. [BACK]

39. Quoted in Donald J. Berthrong, The Southern Cheyennes (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963), 91. [BACK]

40. LeCompte, Pueblo, 6, 10, 14., 115. [BACK]

41. Mauss, The Gift, 3. [BACK]

42. Oscar Lewis, The Effects of White Contact Upon Blackfoot Culture: With Special Reference to the Role of the Fur Trade, Monographs of the American Ethnological Society, ed. A. Irving Hallowell (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1942); and Joseph Jablow, The Cheyenne Indian . [BACK]

43. Jablow, The Cheyenne Indian, 48. [BACK]

44. Ibid., 20. [BACK]

45. Lewis, Effects of White Contact, 56. [BACK]

46. Francis Paul Prucha, Indian Peace Medals in American History (Madison: The State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1971). [BACK]

47. Ibid., 3. [BACK]

48. Ibid. [BACK]

49. Ibid. [BACK]

50. Quoted in Charles Hanson, "Trade Mirrors," Museum of the Fur Trade Quarterly 22, no. 4. (1986): 3. [BACK]

51. Carolyn Gilman, "Grand Portage Ojibway Indians Give British Medals to Historical Society," Minnesota History 47, no. 1 (1980): 28. [BACK]

52. Thomas F Schilz and Jodye L. D. Schiltz, "Beads, Bangles, and Buffalo Robes: The Rise and Fall of the Indian Fur Trade Along the Missouri and Des Moines Rivers, 1700-1820," Annals of Iowa 49, nos. 1-2 (1987): 7. Schilz has co-authored several articles about the fur trade. [BACK]

53. Thomas F. Schilz and Donald E. Worcester, "The Spread of Firearms Among the Indian Tribes on the Northern Frontier of New Spain," American Indian Quarterly 11, no. 1 (1987): 1-10. [BACK]

54. William J. Hunt, "Ethnicity and Firearms in the Upper Missouri Bison-Robe Trade: An Examination of Weapon Preference and Utilization at Fort Union Trading Post N.H.S., North Dakota," Historical Archaeology 27, no. 3 (1993): 74-101. [BACK]

55. John Witthoff, "A History of Gunflints," Pennsylvania Archaeologist 36, no. 1-2 (1966): 48; Harold E Williamson, Winchester: The Gun That Won the West (Washington, D.C.: Combat Forces Press, 1952), 35; Hunt, "Ethnicity and Firearms," 77-78. [BACK]

56. Milo H. Slater, A.L.S. Milo H. Slater to F. W. Craigen, dated 1903, Craigen Far West Notebooks (typescript), Colorado Historical Society. [BACK]

57. Douglas C. Comer, Bent's Old Fort 1976 Archeological Investigations: Trash Dump Excavations, Area Surveys, and Monitoring of Fort Construction and Landscaping (Denver: National Park Service, Denver Service Center, 1985). [BACK]

58. Hunt suggests in the article cited above, "Ethnicity and Firearms," that at Fort Union the firearms utilizing small gunflints were used by fort inhabitants for sport hunting. This might have been the case at Bent's Old Fort, too, but there is little to indicate that Native Americans would have hunted in this manner. [BACK]

59. Berkeley R. Lewis, Small Arms and Ammunition in the U.S. Service (Washington, D.C. :The Smithsonian Institution, 1965), 160. [BACK]

60. Schilz and Worcester, "Spread of Firearms," 1. [BACK]

61. Frank Gilbert Roe, The Indian and the Horse (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1955), 376. [BACK]

62. John C. Ewers, The Horse in Blackfoot Indian Culture, U.S. Bureau of Ethnology, vol. 159 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1955). 63. [BACK]

63. Ibid., 297-298. [BACK]

64. David V. Burley, "Function, Meaning, and Context: Ambiguities in Ceramic Use by the Hivernant Metis of the Northwestern Plains," Historical Archaeology 23: no. 1 (1989): 97-106. [BACK]

65. Ibid., 102. [BACK]

66. Mary Douglas and Baron Isherwood, The World of Goods: Toward an Anthropology of Consumption (London: Alten Lane, 1979), 101-104. [BACK]

67. Burley, "Function, Meaning, and Context," 104. [BACK]

68. Douglas and Isherwood, The World of Goods, 59. [BACK]

69. Burley, "Function, Meaning, and Context," 102. [BACK]

70. Richard E. Flanders, "Beads and Associated Personal Adornment Among Prehistoric Great Lakes Indians," in Grand Rapids Public Museum, Beads: Their Use by Upper Great Lakes Indians (Grand Rapids, Michigan: The Museum, 1977), 2. [BACK]

71. Charles H. Gillette, "Wampum Beads and Belts," Indian Historian 3, no. 4 (1970): 33. [BACK]

72. American Indian Historical Society, "Belts of Sacred Significance," Indian Historian 3, no. 2 (1970): 5-9. [BACK]

73. Peter Powell, "The Enduring Beauty of Cheyenne Art: Crafts That Reflect a Proud Indian Nation's Traditions, Beliefs, and Oneness With Nature," American West 10, no. 4 (1973): 7. [BACK]

74. Ibid. [BACK]

75. Walter Stanley Campbell [Stanley Vestal], 'Dobe Walls: A Story of Kit Carson's Southwest (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1929), quoted in Enid T. Thompson, "Furnishing Study for Bent's Old Fort Historic Sites, Colorado," manuscript on file, National Park Service, Denver Service Center, 1973, 241-246. [BACK]

76. National Park Service, Bents Old Fort Living History Orientation Handbook and Sourcebook, manuscript on file, Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site, La Junta, Colorado (n.d.), 36. [BACK]

77. George R. Milner, E. Anderson, and V. G. Smith, "Warfare in Late Prehistoric West-Central Illinois," American Antiquity 56: no. 4 (1991): 581-603. [BACK]

78. Alice Anne Callahan, The Osage Ceremonial Dance I'n-Lon-Schka (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990), 116. [BACK]