1. Ceran St. Vrain, A.L.S.C. St. Vrain to B. Pratte & Company, dated at Taos, January 6, 1831, Chouteau-Maffitt Collection, Missouri Historical Society: See also Harold H. Dunham, "Ceran St. Vrain," in Mountain Men and Fur Traders of the Far West, ed. LeRoy R. Hafen (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982), 154; and Janet LeCompte, Pueblo, Hardscrabble, Greenhorn (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1978), 14. [BACK]

2. Geoffry A. Godden, An Illustrated Encyclopedia of British Pottery and Porcelain (New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1965), 31-33. [BACK]

3. Janet LeCompte, "Gantt's Fort and Bent's Picket Post," Colorado Magazine 41, no. 2 (1964): 117. [BACK]

4. Douglas C. Comer, Bent's Old Fort 1976 Archeological Investigations: Trash Dump Excavations, Area Surveys, and Monitoring of Fort Construction and Landscaping (Denver: National Park Service, Denver Service Center, 1985), 174. [BACK]

5. David Lavender, Bent's Fort (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1954), 139. [BACK]

6. Ceran St. Vrain, A.L.S.C. St. Vrain to Lieutenant Colonel Enean Mackay, U.S. Army, National Archives-Abandoned Military Reservations Section, box 52, folder labeled "Ft. Lyon (Old) Col. (184-7)." [BACK]

7. Dwight E. Stinson, "Historic Structures Report, Part II," manuscript on file, National Park Service, Denver Service Center, 1965, p. 4. [BACK]

8. Lavender, Bent's Fort, 144; and Samuel P. Arnold, "William Bent," in Trappers of the Far West, ed. Harvey L. Carter (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), 223. [BACK]

9. Pratte, Chouteau & CO. agreement with Bent, St. Vrain & CO., dated July 27, 1838, P. Chouteau-Maffitt Collection, Missouri Historical Society. [BACK]

10. Lavender, Bent's Fort, 136. [BACK]

11. Ibid. [BACK]

12. John E. Sunder, ed., Matt Field on the Santa Fe Trail (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1960), xii. [BACK]

13. George Thorson, "The Architectural Challenge," in Bents Old Fort, ed. Cathryne Johnson (Denver: Colorado Historical Society, 1976), 111. [BACK]

14. Alexandra Aldred, personal communication, 1992. [BACK]

15. Stinson "Historic Structures," 53. [BACK]

16. Ibid., 18. [BACK]

17. George Bird Grinnell, Bent's Old Fort and Its Builders (Topeka: Kansas State Historical Society, 1923), 38. [BACK]

18. Enid T. Thompson, "Furnishing Study for Bent's Old Fort Historic Sites, Colorado," manuscript on file, National Park Service, Denver Service Center, 1973, PP. 52-67. [BACK]

19. Timothy Baugh, personal communication, 1991. See also John D. Speth and Susan L. Scott, "Horticulture and Large-Mammal Hunting: The Role of Resource Depletion and the Constraints of Time and Labor," in Farmers as Hunters: The Implications of Sedentism, Arizona State University Anthropological Research Paper No. 24, ed. David L. Wilcox and R. Bruce Masse (Tempe: Arizona University, 1989), 213-256; and John D. Speth, "Some Unexplained Aspects of Mutualistic Plains-Pueblo Food Exchange," in Farmers, Hunters, and Colonists: Interaction Between the Southwest and the Southern Plains, ed. Katherine A. Spielman (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990), 18-35. [BACK]

20. Timothy G. Baugh, Edwards I (34Bk2): Southern Plains Adaptations in the Protohistoric Period, Studies in Oklahoma's Past, No. 8, Oklahoma Archaeological Survey (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1982), and Timothy G. Baugh, "Ecology and Exchange: The Dynamics of Plains-Pueblo Interaction," in Farmers, Hunters, and Colonists: Interaction Between the Southwest and the Southern Plains (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1991). [BACK]

21. Richard I. Ford, "Inter-Indian Exchange in the Southwest," in The Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 10, ed. William C. Sturtevant (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1983), 711-712, 719-720. [BACK]

22. Eric R. Wolf, Europe and the People Without History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982), 160-161. [BACK]

23. Ibid., 161. [BACK]

24. Ibid., 163. [BACK]

25. Alfred W. Crosby, Jr., The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972), 38. [BACK]

26. Ibid., 37. [BACK]

27. See also Philip L. Walker, Patricia Lambert, and Michael J. DeNiro, "The Effects of European Contact on the Health of Alta California Indians," in Columbian Consequences , vol. I (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989), 349. [BACK]

28. See William Cronon, Changes in the Land (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983); Mark E Leone, "The Georgian Order as the Order of Merchant Capitalism in Annapolis, Maryland," in The Recovery of Meaning, ed. Mark E Leone and Parker Potter, Jr. (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1988), 235-263 (and elsewhere); Louis Althusser, "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses," in Lenin and Philosophy, trans. Ben Brewster (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1971), 127-186. [BACK]

29. William Brandon , Quivira (Columbus: Ohio University Press, 1990). [BACK]

30. David Hurst Thomas, "Columbian Consequences: The Spanish Borderlands in Cubist Perspective," in Columbian Consequences: Archaeological and Historical Perspectives on the Spanish Borderlands West, vol. I, ed. David Hurst Thomas(Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989), 3. [BACK]

31. Ibid., 11. [BACK]

32. For studies that deal with the ideological shift in the eastern United States, the reader is directed to Rhys Isaac, The Transformation of Virginia, 1740-1790 (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1982); and Dell Upton, Holy Things and Profane: Anglican Parish Churches in Colonial Virginia (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1986). [BACK]

33. Ray Allen Billington, Westward Expansion: A History of the American Frontier (New York: Macmillian Publishing, 1974), 356-357. [BACK]

34. Ibid., 365. [BACK]

35. Lewis Hanke, "Indians and Spaniards in the New World: A Personal View," in Attitudes of Colonial Powers Toward the American Indian (University of Utah Press: Salt Lake City, 1969), 6. [BACK]

36. Donald John Blakeslee, The Plains Interband Trade System: An Ethnohistoric and Archeological Investigation, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 1975; Joseph Jablow, The Cheyenne Indian in Plains Indian Trade Relations, 1795-1840, Monographs of the American Ethnological Society (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1950); Brandon, Quivira. [BACK]

37. Donald J. Berthrong, The Southern Cheyennes (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963), 9. [BACK]

38. Virginia Cole Trenholm, The Arapahos: Our People (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1970), 19. [BACK]

39. For Schilz, "Ponies, Pelts and Pemmican: The Arapahos and Early Western Trade," Red River Valley Historical Review 7, no. 9 (1982): 29. [BACK]

40. Blakeslee, Plains Trade System, 118. [BACK]

41. For trade with the Cheyenne, see Elliot Coues, ed., New Light on the Early History of the Greater Northwest: The Manuscript Journals of Alexander Henry and David Thompson, 1799-1814 (New York, 1897), 378; and George Bird Grinnell, The Cheyenne Indians: Their History and Way of Life (New York: Cooper Square Publishers, 1962), 15. For trade with the Arapaho, see John C. Ewers, "The Indian Trade of the Upper Missouri Before Lewis and Clark," Missouri Historical Society Bulletin 10, no. 4 (1954): 431. For the Comanche see Edwin Thompson Denig, Five Indian Tribes of the Upper Missouri, ed. John C. Ewers (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961), 164; and Richard I. Ford, "Barter, Gift, or Violence: An Analysis of Tewa Intertribal Exchange," in Social Exchange and Interaction, An thropological Papers, No. 46, ed. Edwin N. Wilmsen (Ann Arbor: Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, 1972), 21-45. For the Kiowa, see ibid., 30; and Denig, Five Indian Tribes, 164. For the Kiowa-Apache, see Ewers, ''Indian Trade," 431. For the Pawnee, see Alice C. Fletcher, "The Hako: A Pawnee Ceremony,'' in Bureau of American Ethnology, 22nd Annual Report, Part 2 (Washington, D.C., 1904); Antoine Davis Raudot, "Memoir Concerning the Different Indian Nations of North America," in The Indians of the Western Great Lakes, 1615-1760, Occasional Contributions from the Museum of Anthropology of the University of Michigan, No. 10, ed. Vernon Kinietz (Ann Arbor: Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, 1940), 403; and George E. Hyde, Pawnee Indians (Denver: University of Denver Press, 1951), l03. For the Sioux, see Henry A. Boiler, Among the Indians: Eight Years in the Far West, 1858-1866, ed. Milo Milton Quaife (Chicago: R. R. Donnelley & Sons, 1959), 158. [BACK]

42. Blakeslee, Plains Trade System, 180. [BACK]

43. Ibid. [BACK]

44. Ibid., 165. [BACK]

45. Lewis H. Garrard, Wah-to-ya and the Taws Trail (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1955), 36. [BACK]

46. Blakeslee, Plains Trade System, 145. [BACK]

47. Ibid., 7. [BACK]

48. Blakeslee, Plains Trade System, 123. [BACK]

49. Billington, Westward Expansion, 370. [BACK]

50. David J. Weber, The Taws Trappers: The Fur Trade in the Far Southwest, 1540-1846 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986), 35. [BACK]

5l. Ibid. [BACK]

52. Ibid., 47. [BACK]

53. Ibid., 30. [BACK]

54. Ibid., 47. [BACK]

56. Ibid., 18. [BACK]

57. Ibid., 195. [BACK]

58. Schilz, "Ponies, Pelts and Pemmican," 28-38. [BACK]

59. Ibid., 33. [BACK]

60. Ibid. [BACK]

61. Ibid., 34. [BACK]

62. Ibid., 210. [BACK]

63. Weber, Taos Trappers, 6. [BACK]

64. Louis Branch, "Ceran St. Vrain and His Molino de Piedra in the Mora Valley," manuscript on file at New Mexico State Records Center and Archives, file #20, 1981. [BACK]

65. David J. Sandoval, "Gnats, Goods, and Greasers: Mexican Merchants on the Santa Fe Trail ," Journal of the West 28, no. 2 (1989): 25. [BACK]

66. David J. Weber, "American Westward Expansion and the Breakdown of Relations Between Pobladores and 'Indios Barbaros' on Mexico's Far Northern Frontier, 1821-1846," New Mexico Historical Review 56, no. 3 (1981): 221-238. [BACK]

67. Ibid., 222. [BACK]

68. Ibid., 226. [BACK]

69. Ibid., 225-226. [BACK]

70. Ibid., 221-238. [BACK]

71. LeCompte, "Gantt's Fort," 117. [BACK]

72. Ibid., 111. [BACK]

73. Lavender, Bent's Fort, 141-142; George E. Hyde, Life of George Bent, Written From His Letters, ed. Savoie Lottinville (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1968), 60; Berthrong, Southern Cheyennes, 25; and LeCompte, "Gantt's Fort," 118. [BACK]

74. Weber, "American Westward Expansion," 30. [BACK]

75. LeCompte, "Gantt's Fort," 121. [BACK]

76. Janet LeCompte, "Bent, St. Vrain and Company among the Comanche and Kiowa," Colorado Magazine 49, no. 4 (1972): 275. [BACK]

77. Forrest D. Monahan, Jr., "The Kiowas and New Mexico," Journal of the West 8, no. 1 (1969): 67. [BACK]

78. LeCompte, "Bent, St. Vrain and Company," 279. [BACK]

79. Ibid., 280. [BACK]

80. Ibid., 289. [BACK]

81. Ibid., 291. [BACK]

82. Weber, Taos Trappers, 6. [BACK]