1. Konishi Jin'ichi, Ryojin hisho ko (Sanseido, 1941), pp. 51, 81.

2. NKBZ 25:182-83.

3. NKBT 73:345. It must be noted that Han Ê was a female singer.

4. An implicit reference to this ''dancing dust," signifying the power of superb singing, appears in Tosa nikki . See Suzuki Tomotaro et al., eds., Tosa nikki, Kagero nikki, Izumi Shikibu nikki, Sarashina nikki , Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei, vol. 20 (Iwanami Shoten, 1965), p. 30.

5. See sec. 14 in Nishio Minoru, ed., Hojoki , Tsurezuregusa , Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei, vol. 30 (Iwanami Shoten, 1964), p. 102.

6. Sasaki Nobutsuna, Ryojin hisho (Iwanami Bunko, 1933), p. 194.

7. Konishi Jin'ichi, Preface to his Ryojin hisho ko .

8. Shinma Shin'ichi, Kayoshi no kenkyu : sono ichi — imayo ko (Shibundo, 1947), pp. 244-67.

9. See song no. 314. It has fourteen lines with highly irregular prosody.

10. The most extreme case is song no. 410, which is on the topic of lice.

11. Arthur Waley, "Some Poems from the Manyoshu and Ryojin His-sho," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society , 1921, pp. 193-203. More recent

     translations of Ryojin hisho are "Thirty-two Songs from the Ryojin hisho ," in Hiroaki Sato and Burton Watson, eds. and trans., From the Country of Eight Islands: An Anthology of Japanese Poetry (New York: Anchor Books, 1981), pp. 157-62; and Yasuhiko Moriguchi and David Jenkins, trans., The Dance of the Dust on the Rafters: Selections from Ryojin-hisho (Seattle: Broken Moon Press, 1990).

1. Go-Shirakawa, the seventy-seventh sovereign, was the fourth son of Emperor Toba and his principal consort, Taikenmon-in (Fujiwara Shoshi, 1101-45). He became emperor in 1155 on the death of Emperor Konoe (1139-55), his younger half-brother, born of the union between Toba and his favorite secondary consort, Bifukumon-in (Fujiwarn Tokushi, 1117-60). His becoming emperor at the age of twenty-nine makes him a late-comer in Heian politics, where infants were frequently elevated to the throne.

2. The remark is reported by Jien (1155-1225) in his Gukansho (Tracts of Foolish Views) (1219-20). See Okami Masao and Akamatsu Toshihide, eds., Gukansho , Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei, vol. 86 (Iwanami Shoten, 1967), p. 216.

3. See Watanabe Shogo, Ryojin hisho no fuzoku to bungei (Miyai Shoten, 1981), pp. 7-8.

4. Go-Shirakawa's thirty-five-year rule as a retired emperor ( insei ) was record-breaking. The five emperors under his insei were his son Nijo (r. 1158-65), grandson Rokujo (r. 1165-68), son Takakura (r. 1168-80), grandson Antoku (r. 1180-83), and grandson Go-Toba (r. 1183-98). Em-peror Shirakawa (1053-1129) is credited with the establishment of insei .

5. Sutoku was known as a son born of the illicit liaison between Em-peror Shirakawa, Go-Shirakawa's great-grandfather, and Taikenmon-in, Shirakawa's adopted daughter and Toba's consort. Therefore, Sutoku was the half-brother of Go-Shirakawa; however, he passed as the putative son of Emperor Toba. The disturbance—a succession dispute, in essence—occurred in the wake of the death of senior ex-Emperor Toba, when junior ex-Emperor Sutoku (1119-64), forced to abdicate by Toba in favor of Konoe, tried to restore his line on the throne.

6. This marked the first time that the death penalty was revived since the Kusuko Disturbance in 810 during the reign of Emperor Saga (r. 809-23). Shinzei is said to have recommended to Go-Shirakawa the execution of the culprits involved in the incident. See Iida Yukiko, Hogen , Heiji no ran (Kyoikusha, 1979), p. 116.

7. Okami and Akamatsu, eds., Gukansho , p. 335.

8. Quoted in Enoki, ed., Ryojin hisho , p. 281.

9. See Iida, Hogen , p. 138.

10. NKBT 73:444.

11. Saibara refers to folk songs arranged to court music. Roei is the practice of chanting or singing Japanese poems in the manner of recited Chinese poems. Shomyo is a general term for Buddhist vocal music usually performed by priests during temple ceremonies. Emperor Toba himself was an expert in saibara singing, and Go-Shirakawa's skill was equal to his father's. Go-Shirakawa underwent training in the Minamoto school of roei and is also listed in the lineage chart of the transmission of shomyo as the disciple of the priest Kakan. See Shinma, Kayoshi , pp. 46-50.

12. Emperor Juntoku (1197-1242), Go-Shirakawa's great-grandson and Go-Toba's son, attests in his work Yakumo misho (His Majesty's Yakumo Treatise, 1234), that Go-Shirakawa was an accomplished imayo singer. See Konishi, Ryojin hisho ko , p. 1.

13. Shinma, Kayoshi , p. 89-93, 149-56.

14. Kure Fumiaki, Imayo ko (Risosha, 1965), p. 31. Fuzoku (uta ) refers to country folk songs in a general sense. More narrowly, it refers to folk songs incorporated into the court entertainment repertoire. Some fifty such song lyrics are extant. See Tsuchihashi Yutaka and Konishi Jin'ichi, eds., Kodai kayoshu , Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei, vol. 3 (Iwanami Sho-ten, 1957), pp. 277-78.

15. See NKBT 73:469.

16. At least two scenes in different sections of Murasaki Shikibu nikki describe court nobles' enjoyment in singing imayo at their gatherings; see Ikeda Kikan, Kishigami Shinji, and Akiyama Ken, eds., Makura no soshi , Murasaki Shikibu nikki , Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei, vol. 19 (Iwanami Shoten, 1958), pp. 445, 503. In Makura no soshi , Sei Shonagon briefly mentions imayo as "songs with long melodies"; see ibid., sec. 280, p. 301.

15. See NKBT 73:469.

16. At least two scenes in different sections of Murasaki Shikibu nikki describe court nobles' enjoyment in singing imayo at their gatherings; see Ikeda Kikan, Kishigami Shinji, and Akiyama Ken, eds., Makura no soshi , Murasaki Shikibu nikki , Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei, vol. 19 (Iwanami Shoten, 1958), pp. 445, 503. In Makura no soshi , Sei Shonagon briefly mentions imayo as "songs with long melodies"; see ibid., sec. 280, p. 301.

17. Geinoshi Kenkyukai, ed., Nihon geinoshi , 7 vols. (Hosei Daigaku Shuppankyoku, 1981-90), 2:113. Genshin is best known for his major work, Ojoyoshu (Essentials of Salvation); Mount Kinbu (also known as Mount Omine or Mount Mitake), a famous site for mountain asceticism, is in the southern part of Nara Prefecture.

18. See Mitani Eiichi and Sekine Yoshiko, eds., Sagoromo monogatari , Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei, vol. 79 (Iwanami Shoten, 1965), pp. 429-30. Sagoromo monogatari , a tale of the love adventures of the hero, Sagoromo, is ascribed to Rokujo saiin baishi naishinno no Senji (1022?—92).

19. For instance, Go-Shirakawa's imayo teachers in his youth were Akomaro, from Kagami no Yama in Omi Province, who served at the Bureau of Palace Maintenance; and Kane from Kanzaki, a personal atten-dant of Taikenmon-in, Go-Shirakawa's mother. See NKBT 73:443.

20. Kure, Imayo ko , pp. 121-24. Also valuable as a source regarding imayo performances at court is Kokon chomonju (Stories Heard from Writers Old and New, 1254), one of the major setsuwa (tales) collections

     in Japan, by Tachibana Narisue (dates unknown), a literary and musical figure of the Kamakura period.

21. See Kure, Imayo ko , p. 149. Bunkidan , compiled by Ryuen (dates unknown), a biwa expert of the Kamakura period, is a valuable music reference containing materials on biwa music and various song forms, including imayo .

22. Ibid., pp. 124-26.

23. Ibid., pp. 124-38; Shinma, Kayoshi , pp. 189-94.

21. See Kure, Imayo ko , p. 149. Bunkidan , compiled by Ryuen (dates unknown), a biwa expert of the Kamakura period, is a valuable music reference containing materials on biwa music and various song forms, including imayo .

22. Ibid., pp. 124-26.

23. Ibid., pp. 124-38; Shinma, Kayoshi , pp. 189-94.

21. See Kure, Imayo ko , p. 149. Bunkidan , compiled by Ryuen (dates unknown), a biwa expert of the Kamakura period, is a valuable music reference containing materials on biwa music and various song forms, including imayo .

22. Ibid., pp. 124-26.

23. Ibid., pp. 124-38; Shinma, Kayoshi , pp. 189-94.

24. G. Cameron Hurst maintains that the insei period represented the time when emperors exercised real political power, having weakened the influence of Fujiwara regentship; see Insei: Abdicated Sovereigns in the Politics of Late Heian Japan , 1086-1185 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976), pp. 212-13.

25. Nakayama Taro, Nihon mikoshi (Ookayama Shoten, 1930), pp. 580-83.

26. Ibid., pp. 92-114.

25. Nakayama Taro, Nihon mikoshi (Ookayama Shoten, 1930), pp. 580-83.

26. Ibid., pp. 92-114.

27. Yamagami Izumo, Miko no rekishi (Yuzankaku Shuppan, 1981), pp. 123-25.

28. See Baba Mitsuko, " Ryojin hisho mikouta," Nihon kayo kenkyu 17, no. 4 (1978): 16.

29. See Ogihara Asao and Konosu Hayao, eds., Kojiki, jodaikayo , Nihon Koten Bungaku Zenshfi, vol. 1 (Shogakkan, 1973), pp. 81-83. See also Matsumae Takeshi, "The Heavenly Rock-Grotto Myth and the Chinkon Ceremony," Asian Folklore Studies 39, no. 2 (1980): 9-22.

30. Konishi, Ryojin hisho ko , p. 150.

31. Tago Bay, famous for its scenic beauty with a view of Mount Fuji, is located at the present-day Fuji City in Shizuoka Prefecture. The phrase tago no ura was often used in waka as utamakura , a place-name with poetic association.

32. For details, see Matsumae, "Heavenly Rock-Grotto Myth."

33. Joseishi Sogo Kenkyukai, ed., Nihon joseishi (Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1982), 2:109.

34. Nakayama, Nihon mikoshi , pp. 214-20. For further details, see Gorai Shigeru, "Asobi-be ko," Bukkyo bungaku kenkyu 1 (1963): 33-50; Akima Toshio, "The Songs of the Dead: Poetry, Drama, and Ancient Death Rituals of Japan," Journal of Asian Studies 41 (1982): 485-509; and Yung-Hee Kim Kwon, "The Female Entertainment Tradition in Medieval Japan: The Case of Asobi, " in Performing Feminisms: Feminist Critical Theory and Theatre , ed. Sue-Ellen Case (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), pp. 316-27.

35. Gorai, "Asobi-be ko," p. 46.

36. Yamagishi Tokuhei et al., eds., Kodai seiji shakai shiso , Nihon Shisho Taikei, vol. 8 (Iwanami Shoten, 1981), p. 154. The "Yujoki" is by far the most detailed document on asobi available from the Heian period.

37. Takigawa Masajiro, Yugyonyofu , yujo , kugutsume (Shibundo, 1965), p. 121. A scene in Honen Shonin eden , a picture scroll from the Kamakura period on the life of the priest Honen (1133-1212), depicts an asobi trio in their boat appoaching the ship carrying the priest to exile in Tosa from the Muro no Zu port in Harima Province. See Komatsu Shigemi and Kanzaki Mitsuharu, eds., Honen Shonin eden , Zoku Nihon Emaki Taisei, vol. 2 (Chuo Koronsha, 1981), pp. 150-51.

38. Yamagishi et al., eds., Kodai seiji shakai shiso , pp. 154-55.

39. Takigawa Masajiro, Miko no rekishi (Shinbudo, 1981), p. 53.

40. Takigawa, Yugyonyofu , pp. 115-119; Watanabe, Ryojin hisho , p. 35.

41. Takigawa, Miko no rekishi , p. 41. At first the Hyakudaifu may have been represented by young female dolls; see ibid., pp. 130-32.

40. Takigawa, Yugyonyofu , pp. 115-119; Watanabe, Ryojin hisho , p. 35.

41. Takigawa, Miko no rekishi , p. 41. At first the Hyakudaifu may have been represented by young female dolls; see ibid., pp. 130-32.

42. Yamagishi et al., eds., Kodai seiji shakai shiso , p. 155.

43. Ibid. The Hirota Shrine is located in the present-day city of Nishi no Miya in Hyogo Prefecture, to the west of Eguchi and Kanzaki. The Sumiyoshi Shrine is located in present-day Osaka, to the south of Eguchi and Kanzaki.

42. Yamagishi et al., eds., Kodai seiji shakai shiso , p. 155.

43. Ibid. The Hirota Shrine is located in the present-day city of Nishi no Miya in Hyogo Prefecture, to the west of Eguchi and Kanzaki. The Sumiyoshi Shrine is located in present-day Osaka, to the south of Eguchi and Kanzaki.

44. Shimae is presumably the name of a place on the lower Yodo River.

45. Ivan Morris, trans., As I Crossed a Bridge of Dreams: Recollections of a Woman in Eleventh-Century Japan (New York: Dial Press, 1971), p. 115.

46. See Oe no Masafusa, "Yujoki," in Yamagishi et al., eds., Kodai seiji shakai shiso , p. 155; and Takigawa, Yugyonyofu , pp. 168-69, 192, 196.

47. Similar information may be found in Fujiwara Akihira's (989-1066) Meigo orai (Meigo's Correspondence, 1066), a collection of exemplary letters. See Takigawa, Yugyonyofu , pp. 161-64, 181.

48. On a visit in 1023 to Eguchi, Emperor Ichijo bestowed 100 koku (500 bushels) of rice on the groups of asobi that crowded around the imperial barge. In 1000, during Michinaga's visit to Eguchi, the Empress Dowager Tosanjo-in granted 100 koku of rice to asobi , while Michinaga gave 50 koku . Yorimichi distributed 200 skeins of silk and 200 koku of rice on his visit to the Eguchi and Kanzaki areas in 1031. See Watanabe, Ryojin hisho , pp. 37-40.

49. See NKBT 73:454. Tanba no Tsubone's father seems to have been an aristocrat, but her mother was obviously an asobi . See Watanabe, Ryojin hisho , p. 43.

50. The Tennoji Temple is located in Osaka. This episode found its way as well into such setsuwa collections as Senjusho (Selected Stories, 1183) and Kojidan . Finally, the same story was dramatized in the Noh play "Eguchi," attributed to Kan'ami (1333-84), where in the finale the asobi reveals herself as the Bodhisattva Fugen. See Yokomichi Mario and Omote Akira, eds., Yokyokushu , 2 vols., Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei, vols. 40-41 (Iwanami Shoten, 1964), 1:49-56. For a detailed discussion on impli-

     cations of the poetic exchange between Saigyo and the asobi , see William R. LaFleur, "Inns and Hermitages: The Structure of Impermanence," in The Karma of Words: Buddhism and the Literary Arts in Medieval Japan (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1983), pp. 60-79.

51. Shoku Shonin (910-1007) is the founder of Enkyoji Temple on Mount Shosha in Harima Province. The priest, therefore, is also known as Shosha Shonin. Kojidan also relates a story of Shoku Shonin's encounter with an asobi in Kanzaki, who turns out to be the Bodhisattva Fugen. See Kure, Imayo ko , pp. 94-95.

52. Fujiwara Nakazane (1057-1118) was a leading figure in the waka circle of Emperor Horikawa (r. 1086-1107).

53. The lineage chart of the imayo transmission attached to "Imayo no ransho" (Origin of Imayo ), a Kamakura document concerning the genealogy of singers, is included in Konishi, Ryojin hisho ko , pp. 610-13. It shows that many kugutsu , who are mentioned in the Kudenshu , belong to this lineage group.

54. See NKBT 73:446-52. For an English translation of Kudenshu , see Yung-Hee Kwon, "The Emperor's Songs: Go-Shirakawa and Ryojin hisho Kudenshu Book 10," Monumenta Nipponica 41 (1986): 277-82.

55. Yamagishi et al., eds., Kodai seiji shakai shiso , p. 158.

56. Ibid., p. 159.

55. Yamagishi et al., eds., Kodai seiji shakai shiso , p. 158.

56. Ibid., p. 159.

57. Morris, trans., As I Crossed a Bridge of Dreams , pp. 47-48. Apparently, here, the author of the diary did not make a distinction between asobi and kugutsu .

58. Konishi, Ryojin hisho ko , p. 149.

59. Takigawa, Yugyonyofu , p. 231. It has been noted that Mino Province used to be the major center of the katari-be , a hereditary lineage of reciters, which dispatched the largest number of its members (relative to other reciter groups) to the imperial court to take part in the enthronement ceremony. See Inoue Tatsuo, Kodai oken to kataribe (Kyoikusha, 1979), p. 16. Some scholars even suggest that the imayo singers from Mino were descendants of the katari-be of the region; see, for example, Sekine Kenji, "Aohaka no bungaku, geino," Kokubungaku: kaishaku to kansho 45, no. 12 (1980): 182.

60. Morris, trans., As I Crossed a Bridge of Dreams , pp. 51-52.

61. NKBT 73:452. Hatsukoe served as Go-Shirakawa's imayo teacher in the early stages of his imayo studies; see ibid., pp. 444-45.

62. Ibid., p. 451. Fujiwara Ienari (1107-54) was an ardent patron of imayo . The terms beginning with ashigara are various song forms within imayo , but their exact meanings are unknown.

60. Morris, trans., As I Crossed a Bridge of Dreams , pp. 51-52.

61. NKBT 73:452. Hatsukoe served as Go-Shirakawa's imayo teacher in the early stages of his imayo studies; see ibid., pp. 444-45.

62. Ibid., p. 451. Fujiwara Ienari (1107-54) was an ardent patron of imayo . The terms beginning with ashigara are various song forms within imayo , but their exact meanings are unknown.

60. Morris, trans., As I Crossed a Bridge of Dreams , pp. 51-52.

61. NKBT 73:452. Hatsukoe served as Go-Shirakawa's imayo teacher in the early stages of his imayo studies; see ibid., pp. 444-45.

62. Ibid., p. 451. Fujiwara Ienari (1107-54) was an ardent patron of imayo . The terms beginning with ashigara are various song forms within imayo , but their exact meanings are unknown.

63. Nabiki may be the same woman, who headed the third generation of the Mino imayo lineage. See Konishi, Ryojin hisho ko , p. 616.

64. According to Nose Asaji, the term shirabyoshi originally referred

     to both a form of dance and the music that accompanied it, Later it came to be used for the dancers themseves. It is generally believed that shirabyoshi dance and music contributed to the evolution of Noh drama. For further details on the etymology and development of shirabyoshi , see Nose, "Shirabyoshi ni tsuite," Kokugo kokubun 1, no. 3 (1931): 6-22. See also Konishi, Ryojin hisho ko , pp. 159-61. For sources on the origin of shirabyoshi , see Ichiko Teiji, ed., Heike monogatari , 2 vols., Nihon Koten Bungaku Zenshu, vols. 29-30 (Shogakkan, 1973-75), 1:50; and sec. 225 of Tsurezuregusa in Nishio, ed., Hojoki , Tsurezuregusa , p. 271, which suggests the rise of the shirabyoshi sometime during the reign of Emperor Go-Shirakawa.

65. See Ichiko, ed., Heike monogatari 1:49-64; Kajihara Masaaki, ed., Gikeiki , Nihon Koten Bungaku Zenshu, vol. 31 (Shogakkan, 1971), pp. 257-70.

66. See Geinoshi Kenkyukai, ed., Nihon geinoshi 2:164.

67. Konishi, Ryojin hisho ko , p. 160.

68. NKBT 73:447-51.

69. Ibid., pp. 444-45.

70. Ibid., p. 442.

71. Ibid., pp. 442-43. Zogeishu is believed to have been an imayo collection, no longer extant, that preceded Ryojin hisho . The title is also mentioned in Sengohaykuban utaawase (The Poetry Match in Fifteen Hundred Rounds, ca. 1201) and Genpei josuiki (or seisuiki , A Record of the Genpei War, ca. 1247). Homon (or homon uta ) are songs on Buddhism. Hayauta are presumed to be imayo with a fast tempo.

68. NKBT 73:447-51.

69. Ibid., pp. 444-45.

70. Ibid., p. 442.

71. Ibid., pp. 442-43. Zogeishu is believed to have been an imayo collection, no longer extant, that preceded Ryojin hisho . The title is also mentioned in Sengohaykuban utaawase (The Poetry Match in Fifteen Hundred Rounds, ca. 1201) and Genpei josuiki (or seisuiki , A Record of the Genpei War, ca. 1247). Homon (or homon uta ) are songs on Buddhism. Hayauta are presumed to be imayo with a fast tempo.

68. NKBT 73:447-51.

69. Ibid., pp. 444-45.

70. Ibid., p. 442.

71. Ibid., pp. 442-43. Zogeishu is believed to have been an imayo collection, no longer extant, that preceded Ryojin hisho . The title is also mentioned in Sengohaykuban utaawase (The Poetry Match in Fifteen Hundred Rounds, ca. 1201) and Genpei josuiki (or seisuiki , A Record of the Genpei War, ca. 1247). Homon (or homon uta ) are songs on Buddhism. Hayauta are presumed to be imayo with a fast tempo.

68. NKBT 73:447-51.

69. Ibid., pp. 444-45.

70. Ibid., p. 442.

71. Ibid., pp. 442-43. Zogeishu is believed to have been an imayo collection, no longer extant, that preceded Ryojin hisho . The title is also mentioned in Sengohaykuban utaawase (The Poetry Match in Fifteen Hundred Rounds, ca. 1201) and Genpei josuiki (or seisuiki , A Record of the Genpei War, ca. 1247). Homon (or homon uta ) are songs on Buddhism. Hayauta are presumed to be imayo with a fast tempo.

72. See Robert H. Brower and Earl Miner, Japanese Court Poetry (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961), p. 257; and Konishi Jin'ichi, "Michi and Medieval Writing," in Principles of Classical Japanese Literature , ed. Earl Miner (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), pp. 181-208.

73. See NKBT 73:443. Some scholars believe, therefore, that Go-Shirakawa's interest in imayo may have first been inspired by his mother, Taikenmon-in. See Ogawa Hisako, "Goshirakawa-in no 'imayo netsu' to Taikenmon-in Shoshi: nyoin inshi to imayo," Nihon kayo kenkyu 19 (April 1980): 12-17.

74. The remark is entered under the heading "Unsuitable Things" in her Makura no soshi ; see sec. 45 in Ikeda, Kishigami, and Akiyama, eds., Makura no soshi , p. 93.

75. NKBT 73:444.

76. Otomae was brought to Go-Shirakawa's attention by his retainer, Shinzei. At first she refused to accept the invitation, saying that she was no longer good at imayo and that she was unpresentable, an indirect reference to her old age. According to Kudenshu , when Otomae was twelve or thirteen years old her musical talent caught the attention of Minamoto

     Kiyotsune, inspector of finances at the Ministry of Central Affairs, who came to the Mino area on business and was entertained by this young disciple of Mei, a well-known imayo singer of the region. At Kiyotsune's suggestion, both Mei and Otomae came up to the capital and received his patronage. Kiyotsune, the maternal grandfather of the priest Saigyo and presumably an authority in imayo , maintained an intimate personal relationship with Mei until her death and also may have been instrumental in Otomae's development into an accomplished imayo singer. The Kudenshu also reports that a circle of minor-courtier imayo patrons—including Fujiwara Atsuie (1032-90), his son Atsukane (dates unknown), and Fujiwara Akisue (1055-1123)—formed around Mei a generation before Em-peror Go-Shirakawa initiated his patronage of the art form. See NKBT 73: 445-51.

77. The song is identical to Ryojin hisho no. 32. According to Buddhist eschatological tradition, Buddhism was predicted to decline continuously through three stages after the Buddha's decease. The first period, called the "Correct Dharma" ( shobo in Japanese), would last five hundred to one thousand years, during which Buddhist doctrines, practices, and enlightenment all exist. In the second period, known as the "Imitation Dharma" ( zobo ), also lasting five hundred to one thousand years, both doctrines and practices still exist, but enlightenment is no longer possible. The last period, called the "Degenerate Dharma" ( mappo ), spans ten thousand years, and during it only doctrines survive. In Japan, it was believed that the mappo period would begin in the year 1052.

78. NKBT 73:452-53.

79. Ibid., p. 453. The Rishu Sutra ("Sutra of the Principle of Wisdom") emphasizes the compassionate actions of Dainichi (Mahavairocana), the central divinity in Shingon practice, and is recited daily in the sect as its main scripture. The Ninnaji Temple is a Shingon center located in western Kyoto; its abbots were traditionally imperial princes.

80. Ibid., p. 454.

81. Ibid.

82. Ibid.

83. Ibid., pp. 469-70. Suketoki was the son of Sukekata (1113-88), Go-Shirakawa's early imayo teacher. Formerly an officer in the Left Gate Guards, Suketoki became a priest in 1186. Besides being an expert in imayo , he was also skilled in playing the flute and lute, as he came from a renowned family of musicians. Moronaga, an expert biwa player, was the second son of Yorinaga (1120-56), one of the leading insurgents of the Hogen Disturbance. Appointed prime minister in 1177, he was later deposed and exiled by Taira Kiyomori to Owari, where he adopted the title Myron-in, after the name of the bodhisattva of music, Myoon.

78. NKBT 73:452-53.

79. Ibid., p. 453. The Rishu Sutra ("Sutra of the Principle of Wisdom") emphasizes the compassionate actions of Dainichi (Mahavairocana), the central divinity in Shingon practice, and is recited daily in the sect as its main scripture. The Ninnaji Temple is a Shingon center located in western Kyoto; its abbots were traditionally imperial princes.

80. Ibid., p. 454.

81. Ibid.

82. Ibid.

83. Ibid., pp. 469-70. Suketoki was the son of Sukekata (1113-88), Go-Shirakawa's early imayo teacher. Formerly an officer in the Left Gate Guards, Suketoki became a priest in 1186. Besides being an expert in imayo , he was also skilled in playing the flute and lute, as he came from a renowned family of musicians. Moronaga, an expert biwa player, was the second son of Yorinaga (1120-56), one of the leading insurgents of the Hogen Disturbance. Appointed prime minister in 1177, he was later deposed and exiled by Taira Kiyomori to Owari, where he adopted the title Myron-in, after the name of the bodhisattva of music, Myoon.

78. NKBT 73:452-53.

79. Ibid., p. 453. The Rishu Sutra ("Sutra of the Principle of Wisdom") emphasizes the compassionate actions of Dainichi (Mahavairocana), the central divinity in Shingon practice, and is recited daily in the sect as its main scripture. The Ninnaji Temple is a Shingon center located in western Kyoto; its abbots were traditionally imperial princes.

80. Ibid., p. 454.

81. Ibid.

82. Ibid.

83. Ibid., pp. 469-70. Suketoki was the son of Sukekata (1113-88), Go-Shirakawa's early imayo teacher. Formerly an officer in the Left Gate Guards, Suketoki became a priest in 1186. Besides being an expert in imayo , he was also skilled in playing the flute and lute, as he came from a renowned family of musicians. Moronaga, an expert biwa player, was the second son of Yorinaga (1120-56), one of the leading insurgents of the Hogen Disturbance. Appointed prime minister in 1177, he was later deposed and exiled by Taira Kiyomori to Owari, where he adopted the title Myron-in, after the name of the bodhisattva of music, Myoon.

78. NKBT 73:452-53.

79. Ibid., p. 453. The Rishu Sutra ("Sutra of the Principle of Wisdom") emphasizes the compassionate actions of Dainichi (Mahavairocana), the central divinity in Shingon practice, and is recited daily in the sect as its main scripture. The Ninnaji Temple is a Shingon center located in western Kyoto; its abbots were traditionally imperial princes.

80. Ibid., p. 454.

81. Ibid.

82. Ibid.

83. Ibid., pp. 469-70. Suketoki was the son of Sukekata (1113-88), Go-Shirakawa's early imayo teacher. Formerly an officer in the Left Gate Guards, Suketoki became a priest in 1186. Besides being an expert in imayo , he was also skilled in playing the flute and lute, as he came from a renowned family of musicians. Moronaga, an expert biwa player, was the second son of Yorinaga (1120-56), one of the leading insurgents of the Hogen Disturbance. Appointed prime minister in 1177, he was later deposed and exiled by Taira Kiyomori to Owari, where he adopted the title Myron-in, after the name of the bodhisattva of music, Myoon.

78. NKBT 73:452-53.

79. Ibid., p. 453. The Rishu Sutra ("Sutra of the Principle of Wisdom") emphasizes the compassionate actions of Dainichi (Mahavairocana), the central divinity in Shingon practice, and is recited daily in the sect as its main scripture. The Ninnaji Temple is a Shingon center located in western Kyoto; its abbots were traditionally imperial princes.

80. Ibid., p. 454.

81. Ibid.

82. Ibid.

83. Ibid., pp. 469-70. Suketoki was the son of Sukekata (1113-88), Go-Shirakawa's early imayo teacher. Formerly an officer in the Left Gate Guards, Suketoki became a priest in 1186. Besides being an expert in imayo , he was also skilled in playing the flute and lute, as he came from a renowned family of musicians. Moronaga, an expert biwa player, was the second son of Yorinaga (1120-56), one of the leading insurgents of the Hogen Disturbance. Appointed prime minister in 1177, he was later deposed and exiled by Taira Kiyomori to Owari, where he adopted the title Myron-in, after the name of the bodhisattva of music, Myoon.

78. NKBT 73:452-53.

79. Ibid., p. 453. The Rishu Sutra ("Sutra of the Principle of Wisdom") emphasizes the compassionate actions of Dainichi (Mahavairocana), the central divinity in Shingon practice, and is recited daily in the sect as its main scripture. The Ninnaji Temple is a Shingon center located in western Kyoto; its abbots were traditionally imperial princes.

80. Ibid., p. 454.

81. Ibid.

82. Ibid.

83. Ibid., pp. 469-70. Suketoki was the son of Sukekata (1113-88), Go-Shirakawa's early imayo teacher. Formerly an officer in the Left Gate Guards, Suketoki became a priest in 1186. Besides being an expert in imayo , he was also skilled in playing the flute and lute, as he came from a renowned family of musicians. Moronaga, an expert biwa player, was the second son of Yorinaga (1120-56), one of the leading insurgents of the Hogen Disturbance. Appointed prime minister in 1177, he was later deposed and exiled by Taira Kiyomori to Owari, where he adopted the title Myron-in, after the name of the bodhisattva of music, Myoon.

84. Shinma, Kayoshi , pp. 36-43. The twenty-two-volume Kikki is an important source for the study of late Heian cultural developments. Some

     other records that mention this event are Hyakurensho (Seasoned Selections), an anonymously compiled seventeen-volume history based on court nobles' diaries and other sources from the period 968-1259, and Yoshino Kissuiin gakusho (Musical Record Kept at Yoshino Kissuiin), a mid-thirteenth-century collection of information on musical genres, performances, and events of earlier periods.

85. Shinma, Kayoshi , pp. 42-43.

1 Taniyama Shigeru, Senzaiwakashu to sono shuhen , Taniyama Shigeru Chosakushu, vol. 3 (Kadokawa Shoten, 1982), p. 247.

2. NKBT 73:446-47, 458-60.

3. The following discussion owes much to Taniyama, Senzaiwakashu , pp. 7-36.

4. Ibid., pp. 20-21.

3. The following discussion owes much to Taniyama, Senzaiwakashu , pp. 7-36.

4. Ibid., pp. 20-21.

5. Reportedly Munemori vowed that the Taira would fight to the last man to carry out Kiyomori's dying wish—an injunction to his sons to capture Yoritomo, behead him, and hang the head over Kiyomori's grave before they perform his funeral. See lchiko, ed., Heike monogatari 1:452.

6. See Nagazumi Yasuaki and Shimada Isao, eds., Hogen monogatari, Heiji monogatari , Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei, vol. 31 (Iwanami Shoten, 1986), p. 181. To appease Sutoku's maligned spirit, a shrine for him was finally built in the fourth month in 1184 on the banks of the Kasuga River, at the site of the battle of the Hogen Disturbance.

7. Kyuan hyakushu includes one hundred waka poems composed by fourteen poets, including Sutoku and Shunzei. It is considered the best of the poems produced by the poetic circle under Sutoku's leadership and served as the basis for Senzaishu . See Taniyama, Senzaiwakashu , pp. 19-20.

8. Some of these poems are included in Shunzei's collection of waka, Choshu eiso (Shunzei's Collection for Her Former Majesty, 1178), com-piled at the request of Princess Shokushi (d. 1201), daughter of Go-Shirakawa and a renowned waka poet.

9. Taniyama, Senzaiwakashu , pp. 19-20.

10. Shokushikashu never became an imperial anthology owing to the death of Emperor Nijo in 1165.

11. Taniyama, Senzaiwakashu , p. 11.

12. Ichiko, ed., Heike monogatari 2:94-97.

13. The choice of Sukemori is considered to have been a conciliatory gesture to placate Taira. See Taniyama, Senzaiwakashu , pp. 28-30.

14. Ibid., pp. 25-26.

13. The choice of Sukemori is considered to have been a conciliatory gesture to placate Taira. See Taniyama, Senzaiwakashu , pp. 28-30.

14. Ibid., pp. 25-26.

15. For instance, a poem by Taira Tokitada (the elder brother of Kiyomori's wife) and three poems by his younger brother, Chikamune, are

     included in Senzaishu and identified by the poet's name. Other poems by more prominent members of the Taira, however, are listed as anonymous: Tadanori, no. 66; Tsunemasa, nos. 199 and 245; Yukimori, no. 519; and Tsunemori, no. 667. All of these poets had been Shunzei's disciples.

16. The poem was originally included in Kyuan hyakushu , and later Shunzei selected it for inclusion in his Koraifuteisho (Poetic Styles Past and Present, 1197), which indicates that the poem was one of his favorites. See Kubota Jun and Matsuno Yoichi, eds., Senzaiwakashu (Kasama Shoin, 1970), pp. 44-45.

17. This poem was also included in both Kyuan hyakushu and Koraifuteisho . It is regarded as one of Shunzei's best poems, embodying the essence of yugen (feelings of mystic depth). See ibid., pp. 53-54.

16. The poem was originally included in Kyuan hyakushu , and later Shunzei selected it for inclusion in his Koraifuteisho (Poetic Styles Past and Present, 1197), which indicates that the poem was one of his favorites. See Kubota Jun and Matsuno Yoichi, eds., Senzaiwakashu (Kasama Shoin, 1970), pp. 44-45.

17. This poem was also included in both Kyuan hyakushu and Koraifuteisho . It is regarded as one of Shunzei's best poems, embodying the essence of yugen (feelings of mystic depth). See ibid., pp. 53-54.

18. Both Shiga and Mount Nagara are located in Omi. This poem is the one that Tadanori presumably entrusted to Shunzei before retreating from the Heian capital. See Ichiko, ed., Heike monogatari 2:94-97.

19. See Taniyama, Senzaiwakashu , pp. 195-97.

20. The anecdote is found in the entry on the seventeenth day of the sixth month in 1184. Fujiwara Mitsunaga (or Tokiwa no Genji Mitsunaga) heard the story from Taira Yorimori (1131-86), a brother of Kiyomori. See Komatsu Shigemi, "Ocho emaki to Goshirakawa-in," in Genji monogatari emaki, Nezame monogatari emaki , ed. Komatsu Shigemi, Nihon Emaki Taisei, vol. 1 (Chuo Koronsha, 1977), pp. 117-18.

21. Ibid., pp. 132-33.

22. See ibid., p. 127.

20. The anecdote is found in the entry on the seventeenth day of the sixth month in 1184. Fujiwara Mitsunaga (or Tokiwa no Genji Mitsunaga) heard the story from Taira Yorimori (1131-86), a brother of Kiyomori. See Komatsu Shigemi, "Ocho emaki to Goshirakawa-in," in Genji monogatari emaki, Nezame monogatari emaki , ed. Komatsu Shigemi, Nihon Emaki Taisei, vol. 1 (Chuo Koronsha, 1977), pp. 117-18.

21. Ibid., pp. 132-33.

22. See ibid., p. 127.

20. The anecdote is found in the entry on the seventeenth day of the sixth month in 1184. Fujiwara Mitsunaga (or Tokiwa no Genji Mitsunaga) heard the story from Taira Yorimori (1131-86), a brother of Kiyomori. See Komatsu Shigemi, "Ocho emaki to Goshirakawa-in," in Genji monogatari emaki, Nezame monogatari emaki , ed. Komatsu Shigemi, Nihon Emaki Taisei, vol. 1 (Chuo Koronsha, 1977), pp. 117-18.

21. Ibid., pp. 132-33.

22. See ibid., p. 127.

23. Komatsu Shigemi, " Nenjugyoji emaki tanjo," in Nenjugyoji emaki , ed. Komatsu Shigemi, Nihon Emaki Taisei, vol. 8 (Chuo Koronsha, 1977), p. 116.

24. See ibid., p. 106.

25. Motofusa, who is the elder brother of Kanezane, was a well-known expert in official matters. See ibid., p. 127.

26. Ibid., p. 109.

27. Ibid., p. 110.

28. Ibid., p. 114.

29. Ibid., p. 115.

23. Komatsu Shigemi, " Nenjugyoji emaki tanjo," in Nenjugyoji emaki , ed. Komatsu Shigemi, Nihon Emaki Taisei, vol. 8 (Chuo Koronsha, 1977), p. 116.

24. See ibid., p. 106.

25. Motofusa, who is the elder brother of Kanezane, was a well-known expert in official matters. See ibid., p. 127.

26. Ibid., p. 109.

27. Ibid., p. 110.

28. Ibid., p. 114.

29. Ibid., p. 115.

23. Komatsu Shigemi, " Nenjugyoji emaki tanjo," in Nenjugyoji emaki , ed. Komatsu Shigemi, Nihon Emaki Taisei, vol. 8 (Chuo Koronsha, 1977), p. 116.

24. See ibid., p. 106.

25. Motofusa, who is the elder brother of Kanezane, was a well-known expert in official matters. See ibid., p. 127.

26. Ibid., p. 109.

27. Ibid., p. 110.

28. Ibid., p. 114.

29. Ibid., p. 115.

23. Komatsu Shigemi, " Nenjugyoji emaki tanjo," in Nenjugyoji emaki , ed. Komatsu Shigemi, Nihon Emaki Taisei, vol. 8 (Chuo Koronsha, 1977), p. 116.

24. See ibid., p. 106.

25. Motofusa, who is the elder brother of Kanezane, was a well-known expert in official matters. See ibid., p. 127.

26. Ibid., p. 109.

27. Ibid., p. 110.

28. Ibid., p. 114.

29. Ibid., p. 115.

23. Komatsu Shigemi, " Nenjugyoji emaki tanjo," in Nenjugyoji emaki , ed. Komatsu Shigemi, Nihon Emaki Taisei, vol. 8 (Chuo Koronsha, 1977), p. 116.

24. See ibid., p. 106.

25. Motofusa, who is the elder brother of Kanezane, was a well-known expert in official matters. See ibid., p. 127.

26. Ibid., p. 109.

27. Ibid., p. 110.

28. Ibid., p. 114.

29. Ibid., p. 115.

23. Komatsu Shigemi, " Nenjugyoji emaki tanjo," in Nenjugyoji emaki , ed. Komatsu Shigemi, Nihon Emaki Taisei, vol. 8 (Chuo Koronsha, 1977), p. 116.

24. See ibid., p. 106.

25. Motofusa, who is the elder brother of Kanezane, was a well-known expert in official matters. See ibid., p. 127.

26. Ibid., p. 109.

27. Ibid., p. 110.

28. Ibid., p. 114.

29. Ibid., p. 115.

23. Komatsu Shigemi, " Nenjugyoji emaki tanjo," in Nenjugyoji emaki , ed. Komatsu Shigemi, Nihon Emaki Taisei, vol. 8 (Chuo Koronsha, 1977), p. 116.

24. See ibid., p. 106.

25. Motofusa, who is the elder brother of Kanezane, was a well-known expert in official matters. See ibid., p. 127.

26. Ibid., p. 109.

27. Ibid., p. 110.

28. Ibid., p. 114.

29. Ibid., p. 115.

30. Komatsu, "Ocho emaki to Goshirakawa-in," p. 118.

31. Ibid., p. 125.

30. Komatsu, "Ocho emaki to Goshirakawa-in," p. 118.

31. Ibid., p. 125.

32. See Komatsu, "Nenjugyoji emaki tanjo," p. 120.

33. See Komatsu, "Ocho emaki to Goshirakawa-in," p. 133.

34. See Tanaka Hiroshi, "Pilgrim Places: A Study of the Eighty-eight Sacred Precincts of the Shikoku Pilgrimage, Japan" (Ph.D. diss., Simon Fraser University, 1975), p. 12.

35. Saicho traveled to T'ang China during the years 804-5 and studied on Mount T'ien-t'ai. Upon his return to Japan he founded the Tendai sect on Mount Hiei. Kukai, a contemporary of Saicho, also studied in China

     from 804 to 806. Ennin, one of Saicho's disciples, is best known for his Nitto guho junrei gyoki (The Record of a Pilgrimage to China in Search of the Dharma), an account of his sojourn in China from 838 to 847. Enchin stayed in China for six years, 853-58, studying on Mount T'ien-t'ai and in Ch'ang-an.

36. W. G. Aston, trans., Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697 (Rutland, Vt.: Charles E. Tuttle, 1972), pp. 21-22.

37. Murayama Shuichi, Honji suijaku (Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 1974), p. 149.

38. Aston, trans., Nihongi , pp. 115-16.

39. Shinma, Kayoshi , p. 53. Emperor Sutoku, who made only one pilgrimage to Kumano, is the sole exception during the insei period. The exact number of Go-Shirakawa's pilgrimages to Kumano is disputed; I have followed Shinma, who provides a detailed biographical chronology, pp. 290-360.

40. The years he did not go to Kumano are 1161, 1176, 1181-85 (the Genpei War period), and 1189.

41. The years in which two trips took place are 1167, 1168, 1169, 1171, 1173, 1174, 1175, and 1177. In the years 1167, 1169, and 1175, Go-Shirakawa's favorite consort, Kenshunmon-in, accompanied him on one of the two trips.

42. Shinma, Kayoshi , p. 54.

43. See Hashigawa Tadashi, Nihon bukkyo bunkashi no kenkyu (Chugai Shuppan Kabushiki Kaisha, 1924), pp. 261-63; and Murayama, Honji suijaku , p. 156. One of the memorable episodes in Heike monogatari relates the drowning of Taira Koremori (1158-84), a grandson of Kiyomori, off the shore of Nachi in 1184; see Ichiko, ed., Heike monogatari 2:326-31.

44. Murayama, Honji suijaku , p. 164.

45. An example of the extreme austerities endured by ascetics is found in the story of the priest Mongaku at the Nachi Falls in Kumano, who, in winter, repeatedly submerged himself in the pool of the waterfall; see Ichiko, ed., Heike monogatari 1:379-83.

46. Murayama, Honji suijaku , pp. 152-53.

47. See Miyaji Naokazu, Kumano sanzan no shiteki kenkyu (Kokumin Shinko Kenkyukai, 1954), pp. 462-67.

48. NKBT 73:460-63; the years were 1160, 1162, and 1169.

49. The figure in an ascetic's white robe illustrated on the ''Kumano mandala," preserved in Saikyoji Temple in Otsu City, is believed to be Emperor Go-Shirakawa on his pilgrimage to Kumano. See Shinma Shin'ichi, "Goshirakawa-in to bukkyo," Chusei bungaku ronso 3, no. 1 (1980): 11.

50. Anzu Motohiko, Shinto jiten (Osaka: Hori Shoten, 1968), p. 298.

51. NKBT 73:463-67.

52. Shinma, Kayoshi , p. 51. This ceremony of anointment, called kanjo , was performed in esoteric Buddhism. The rite conferred higher status to the recipient than did a regular tonsure. It sometimes was ad-ministered for special reasons such as to provide relief from illnesses or to prepare one for the next life.

53. NKBT 73:461-62. Minamoto Michiie (d. 1167) was the son of Sukekata. He died five years after accompanying Go-Shirakawa on this pilgrimage to Kumano. Kakusan, a priest from Onjoji Temple, served as the guide on this pilgrimage.

54. Ibid., p. 464.

53. NKBT 73:461-62. Minamoto Michiie (d. 1167) was the son of Sukekata. He died five years after accompanying Go-Shirakawa on this pilgrimage to Kumano. Kakusan, a priest from Onjoji Temple, served as the guide on this pilgrimage.

54. Ibid., p. 464.

55. Shirai Eiji and Toki Masanori, eds., Jinja jiten (Tokyodo Shuppan, 1979), p. 44.

56. Ibid., pp. 43-44.

55. Shirai Eiji and Toki Masanori, eds., Jinja jiten (Tokyodo Shuppan, 1979), p. 44.

56. Ibid., pp. 43-44.

57. Shinma, Kayoshi , p. 55.

1. NKBT 73:442.

2. The Zuino is also known as Toshiyori kuden(shu , Toshiyori mumyosho , and Toshi hisho . The two-volume book elucidates different waka forms, prosody, topics, styles, techniques, rhetoric, and ideals. It reinforces the critical contents by selecting examples of superior poems under each heading. The work is characterized by its structurally loose, rambling narrative.

3. In the conversation with his son Teika, Fujiwara Shunzei praised Toshiyori as a poetic genius in his use of poetic dictions; see Ichiko Teiji, ed., Nihon bungaku zenshi , 6 vols. (Gakutosha, 1978), 2:494. It is no wonder, therefore, that Shunzei selected in Senzaishu fifty-two poems by Toshiyori, the largest number by any single poet represented in the anthology.

4. Zuino contains fifty such poems based on historical or legendary narratives from China or Japan, as well as nineteen poems that share similar story origins with Konjaku monogatari ; see Ikeda Tomizo, Minamoto Toshiyori no kenkyu (Ofusha, 1973), pp. 906-10, 989.

5. Ibid., pp. 903-5.

4. Zuino contains fifty such poems based on historical or legendary narratives from China or Japan, as well as nineteen poems that share similar story origins with Konjaku monogatari ; see Ikeda Tomizo, Minamoto Toshiyori no kenkyu (Ofusha, 1973), pp. 906-10, 989.

5. Ibid., pp. 903-5.

6. NKBT 73:469.

7. Ibid., p. 470. It was only in 1178 that imayo transmission began in earnest with Minamoto Suketoki and Fujiwara Moronaga.

6. NKBT 73:469.

7. Ibid., p. 470. It was only in 1178 that imayo transmission began in earnest with Minamoto Suketoki and Fujiwara Moronaga.

8. The following observation owes much to Walter Ong's insights into oral tradition and literacy as presented in his book Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word (London: Methuen, 1982).

9. NKBT 73:440. Nothing is known about mononoyo . Tauta , rice planting songs, also belong to the folk song genre.

10. NKBZ 25:22. The regent Fujiwara Michinaga is supposed to have written the text himself.

11. Ibid., p. 117. One notable textualization of saibara was done by Fujiwara Moronaga, Go-Shirakawa's imayo successor. The saibara texts are preserved in his musical score collections: Inchiyoroku (Compendium of Benevolence and Wisdom) for koto and Sangoyoroku (Compendium of Fifteen Eras) for biwa .

12. Between the reigns of Emperor Seiwa (r. 858-76) and Emperor Daigo (r. 897-930), the court kagurauta repertoire was believed to have been fixed; see ibid., pp. 16-17.

10. NKBZ 25:22. The regent Fujiwara Michinaga is supposed to have written the text himself.

11. Ibid., p. 117. One notable textualization of saibara was done by Fujiwara Moronaga, Go-Shirakawa's imayo successor. The saibara texts are preserved in his musical score collections: Inchiyoroku (Compendium of Benevolence and Wisdom) for koto and Sangoyoroku (Compendium of Fifteen Eras) for biwa .

12. Between the reigns of Emperor Seiwa (r. 858-76) and Emperor Daigo (r. 897-930), the court kagurauta repertoire was believed to have been fixed; see ibid., pp. 16-17.

10. NKBZ 25:22. The regent Fujiwara Michinaga is supposed to have written the text himself.

11. Ibid., p. 117. One notable textualization of saibara was done by Fujiwara Moronaga, Go-Shirakawa's imayo successor. The saibara texts are preserved in his musical score collections: Inchiyoroku (Compendium of Benevolence and Wisdom) for koto and Sangoyoroku (Compendium of Fifteen Eras) for biwa .

12. Between the reigns of Emperor Seiwa (r. 858-76) and Emperor Daigo (r. 897-930), the court kagurauta repertoire was believed to have been fixed; see ibid., pp. 16-17.

13. NKBT 73:467.

14. Ibid., pp. 467-68.

13. NKBT 73:467.

14. Ibid., pp. 467-68.

15. Two legends explain the circumstances of Atsuie's death in 1090. According to one, he died on Mount Kinbu on a pilgrimage; the other relates that he died on a pilgrimage to Kumano, because the deities there wished to keep him with them, so impressed were they by his music. See NKBT 73:467.

16. Fujiwara Michisue (d. 1128), assistant middle councillor, was an elder brother of Taikenmon-in and, therefore, Go-Shirakawa's maternal uncle. The song he sang is the same as no. 160 in Ryojin hisho .

17. Koryuji Temple is located in the western part of Kyoto.

18. The song may have been no. 235 of Ryojin hisho . The story of Tonekuro is included in well-known Buddhist setsuwa collections such as Hobutsushu (A Collection of Treasures), compiled by Taira Yasuyori (fl. 1190-1200), and Jikkinsho (A Treatise of Ten Rules, ca. 1252) compiled by Rokuhara Jirozaemon (fl. mid-Kamakura). According to these sources, an asobi named Tonekuro from Kanzaki was mortally wounded in an ambush by pirates on her way to Tsukushi by boat in the company of a male companion. Before she died, she reportedly sang this song and achieved rebirth in the Pure Land. See NKBT 73:468.

19. Shirogimi was probably an asobi from Takasago, a seaside village in Hyogo Prefecture.

20. The Kumano pilgrimage tops the list, with such incidents happening on three occasions, in 1160, 1162, and 1169. On pilgrimages to the following shrines, such an incident occurred once: Kamo Shrine in 1169, Itsukushima Shrine in 1174, and Yawata Shrine in 1178. See NKBT 73: 460-67.

21. See ibid., p. 463. In fact, Go-Shirakawa's recital of imayo on this occasion included thirteen of the twenty known imayo forms. This variety indicates how seriously he took the occasion: as if to display the best of his performing art as well as to experience the climax of his musical career as a layperson, he seems to have covered as exhaustively as possible the ground he had cultivated for so many years.

20. The Kumano pilgrimage tops the list, with such incidents happening on three occasions, in 1160, 1162, and 1169. On pilgrimages to the following shrines, such an incident occurred once: Kamo Shrine in 1169, Itsukushima Shrine in 1174, and Yawata Shrine in 1178. See NKBT 73: 460-67.

21. See ibid., p. 463. In fact, Go-Shirakawa's recital of imayo on this occasion included thirteen of the twenty known imayo forms. This variety indicates how seriously he took the occasion: as if to display the best of his performing art as well as to experience the climax of his musical career as a layperson, he seems to have covered as exhaustively as possible the ground he had cultivated for so many years.

22. NKBT 73:463. Ichiko is one form of imayo , but nothing is known

     about it. Fujiwara Chikanobu (dates unknown), chief of the Right Bureau of Horses, was dismissed from his post during Kiyomori's coup in 1179. The original sentence beginning "It may be the flapping sound ... "is garbled, making it difficult to decipher the exact meaning.

23. Ibid., p. 468-69.

22. NKBT 73:463. Ichiko is one form of imayo , but nothing is known

     about it. Fujiwara Chikanobu (dates unknown), chief of the Right Bureau of Horses, was dismissed from his post during Kiyomori's coup in 1179. The original sentence beginning "It may be the flapping sound ... "is garbled, making it difficult to decipher the exact meaning.

23. Ibid., p. 468-69.

24. Suzuki Hideo and Fujii Sadakazu, eds., Nihon bungeishi , vol. 2 (Kawade Shoboshinsha, 1986), p. 333. The group comprised forty members, half of whom were poets and half priests from Enryakuji Temple on Mount Hiei. The first meeting was held in 964 at Gatsurinji Temple in Nishisakamoto. Although subsequent meetings were occasionally disrupted, they continued until 1122 at various locations. Yasutane was a famous scholar of Chinese studies during the reign of the Emperor Kazan. Shitago was the compiler of Wamyo (ruiju)sho (Japanese Names for Things Classified and Annotated, ca. 931-37), the first Japanese dictionary of encyclopedic scope. Tamenori was Shitago's disciple and the compiler of Samboe(kotoba) (Illustrated Words on the Three Treasures, 984), a setsuwa collection.

25. The passage is included in the section titled "Hsiang Shan ssu pai shih luo chung chi chi" (Preface to Luo chung-chi by Po Chü-i Dedicated to the Hsian Shan-ssu Temple) in book 71 of his Pai shih wen chi (The Collected Writings of Po Chü-i). At the Kangaku-e gathering, the mem-bers chanted the phrase kyogen kigyo along with Po Chü-i's poems. A detailed description of the Kangaku-e meetings is included in Samboe by Minamoto Tamenori. See Ichiko, ed., Nihon bungaku zenshi 2:258-59.

26. See Kikuchi Ryoichi, "Bungei daiichigitei o enzu: kyogen kigyo sokubutsudo," Bukkyo bungaku kenkyu 11 (1972): 9-10. The Muryojukyo Sutra (Amitayus Sutra) condemns false words and showy language as one of the ten vices.

27. Among them, the Parable of the Burning House in the Lotus Sutra is usually taken as the most effective illustration of this point. For an English translation, see Leon Hurvitz, trans., Scripture of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976), pp. 49-83.

28. Kikuchi, "Bungei," p. 47.

29. In the preface to his Koraifuteisho , Shunzei advocates the kyogen kigyo ideal; Saigyo in his Sankashu (Collection from a Mountain Hut) also talks about the same concept. See Kikuchi, "Bungei," pp. 24-26.

30. See poem no. 588, NKBT 73:200.

31. Kudenshu , book 1, NKBT 73:440; italics added.

32. A similar concept is echoed in the preface to Kanginshu (Songs for Leisure Hours), a mid-Muromachi collection of popular songs. See NKBZ 25:384. In some popular song genres such as wazauta , songs were consid-ered to have prophetic or premonitory power, usually warning of events

     of grave political consequence. See Misumi Haruo, Geinoshi no minzokuteki kenkyu (Tokyodo Shuppan, 1976), p. 42.

33. Obayashi Taryo, ed., Ensha to kankyaku: seikatsu no naka no asobi , Nihon Minzoku Bunka Taikei, vol. 7 (Shogakkan, 1984), p. 90.

34. Geinoshi Kenkyukai, ed. Nihon geinoshi 1:215.

35. Ibid.

34. Geinoshi Kenkyukai, ed. Nihon geinoshi 1:215.

35. Ibid.

1. Six such examples are found in Ryojin hisho : no. 18 is the same as no. 194; no. 19=no. 25; no. 20=no. 23; no. 21=no. 22; no. 30=no. 237; and no. 324=no. 414.

2. Konishi, Ryojin hisho ko , pp. 151-53.

3. A handful songs in homon uta , such as nos. 67, 95, 100, 221, and 227, deviate from this norm. The 8-5 syllable line is more common than that of 7-5 in homon uta . See Shinma Shin'ichi and Shida Nobuyoshi, eds., Kayo II: Ryojin hisho , Kanginshu , Kansho Nihon Koten Bungaku, vol. 15 (Kadokawa Shoten, 1979), p. 73.

4. See Enoki Katsuro, "Homon uta," Kokugo kokubun 18 (1949): 83-86; Shinma, Kayoshi , pp. 165-67.

5. NKBT 73:468.

6. The song is from the parable of the burning house in chapter 2 of the Lotus Sutra, "Hobenbon" (Expedient Means).

7. The song is based on the story of a prodigal son and his father featured in "Shingehon" (Belief and Understanding), chapter 4 of the Lotus Sutra.

8. The song is taken from the parable of a jewel sewn into the robe of a drunken man, included in "Gohyaku deshihon" (Receipt of Prophecy by Five Hundred Disciples), chapter 8 of the Lotus Sutra.

9. Geinoshi Kenkyukai, ed., Nihon geinoshi 2:103.

10. Taya Raishun, Wasanshi gaisetsu (Kyoto: Hozokan, 1933), p. 44.

11. Ibid., p. 50. Part of this kansan appears as poem no. 591 in Wakan roeishu ; see NKBT 73:201. Tomohira also wrote another kansan called "Fugen bosatsu san" (Praise of Fugen Bodhisattva).

10. Taya Raishun, Wasanshi gaisetsu (Kyoto: Hozokan, 1933), p. 44.

11. Ibid., p. 50. Part of this kansan appears as poem no. 591 in Wakan roeishu ; see NKBT 73:201. Tomohira also wrote another kansan called "Fugen bosatsu san" (Praise of Fugen Bodhisattva).

12. Enoki, "Homon uta," p. 89.

13. Taya, Wasanshi gaisetsu , p. 92. The wasan genre that developed on Mount Hiei was cultivated largely by priests inclined toward the Pure Land school. This close relationship may account for the fact that wasan was the major form used in Pure Land liturgy and that the majority of extant wasan are related to Pure Land Buddhism.

14. Ibid., pp. 4, 27.

13. Taya, Wasanshi gaisetsu , p. 92. The wasan genre that developed on Mount Hiei was cultivated largely by priests inclined toward the Pure Land school. This close relationship may account for the fact that wasan was the major form used in Pure Land liturgy and that the majority of extant wasan are related to Pure Land Buddhism.

14. Ibid., pp. 4, 27.

15. Takeishi Akio, Bukkyo kayo (Hanawa Shobo, 1973), p. 27. This

      wasan is on the Tendai doctrines, beginning with those elaborated by Ennin.

16. Ibid., pp. 24-28. "Gokurakukoku mida wasan" is supposed to have been popularly sung, rather than used in solemn Buddhist ceremonies.

15. Takeishi Akio, Bukkyo kayo (Hanawa Shobo, 1973), p. 27. This

      wasan is on the Tendai doctrines, beginning with those elaborated by Ennin.

16. Ibid., pp. 24-28. "Gokurakukoku mida wasan" is supposed to have been popularly sung, rather than used in solemn Buddhist ceremonies.

17. Taya, Wasanshi gaisetsu , pp. 30-36. Most of these are included in Takano Tatsuyuki, ed., Nihon kay6 shusei , 12 vols., rev. ed. (Tokyodo Shuppan, 1960), vol. 4.

18. Konishi, Ryojin hisho ko, p. 104.

19. Two songs, nos. 296 and 303, in the shiku no kamiuta section are also from "Tendai Daishi wasan."

20. Yokan was the eighth patriarch of the Pure Land sect. He had long been associated with the Todaiji Temple in Nara and the Zenrinji Temple in Kyoto.

21. Taya, Wasanshi gaisetsu , pp. 86-87.

22. Mount Sumeru is the center in Indian cosmology and is thought to be composed of gold, silver, emerald, and crystal and surrounded by a great ocean in the four cardinal directions.

23. Early wasan were simply Japanese reading of kansan , with occa-sional insertions of Japanese particles such as wa, ga, o, hi , or no ; see Geinoshi Kenkyfikai, eds., Nihon geinoshi 2:104.

24. See Shinma Shin'ichi, "Imayo ni miru bukkyo," Bukkyo bungaku kenkyu 2, no. 2 (1964): 80-85. Kungata , which consist of a quatrain, are Buddhist songs used in temple rituals and have closest affinity with homon uta. Kyoke are another form of Buddhist song performed in temple ceremonies and are much longer than kungata .

25. Konishi, Ryojin hisho ko , p. 133.

26. The clappers were made of small bamboo stalks attached to a piece of wooden board; when pulled by a rope, they would make jingling noises. This device was used to scare away animals from damaging the crops in the fields or rice paddies.

27. The Day of the Rat refers to the First Day of the Rat in the New Year, when people would go to the fields to transplant small pine trees and pluck young shoots. The peach blossom refers to a Chinese legend in which a fairy offered Emperor Wu of the Hah dynasty a large peach, the harvest from a blossom that bloomed but once in three thousand years; see NKBZ 25:313.

28. Yokawa is one of the major areas in the Enryakuji Temple com-pound on Mount Hiei. Chisho Daishi (Enchin), after returning home from his studies in China, was appointed in 866 as head priest of the Miidera (Onjoji) Temple in Otsu, Omi Province. Kobo Daishi founded the Kongobuji Temple on Mount Koya.

29. No. 58 demonstrates spatial progression in much the same way as michiyuki , while no. 100 is limited to enumerating the names of a series

     of palaces. See Tsuchihashi and Konishi, eds., Kodai kayoshu , pp. 73-74, 99-100.

30. Ibid., p. 187.

29. No. 58 demonstrates spatial progression in much the same way as michiyuki , while no. 100 is limited to enumerating the names of a series

     of palaces. See Tsuchihashi and Konishi, eds., Kodai kayoshu , pp. 73-74, 99-100.

30. Ibid., p. 187.

31. Song no. 13 on gambling is partly in catalog form; no. 22, titled "Kubo no na," lists names of female sexual organs. See NKBZ 25:132, 227-38.

32. See Konishi, Ryojin hisho ko , p. 152. By the time imayo appeared in the Heian period, waka poems were already being sung.

33. The song is based on Goshuishu poem no. 1166 by the priest Egyo (dates unknown). The "three jeweled fences" refer to the three major shrines that make up the Inari Shrine complex.

34. Nagato is an old name for the Kurahashijima Island in Hiroshima Prefecture. A buddha supposedly has thirty-two primary body marks, one of which is "golden-colored" skin; in addition, he has eighty secondary body marks. For the detailed list of these marks, see Leon Hurvitz, Chih-i (538-597): An Introduction to the Life and Ideas of a Chinese Buddhist Monk , Mélanges chinois et bouddhiques, vol. 12 (Brussels: L'Institut Belge des Hautes Études Chinoises, 1962), pp. 353-60.

35. Konishi, Ryojin hisho ko , p. 85.

36. Ibid., p. 152.

37. Ibid., p. 108.

35. Konishi, Ryojin hisho ko , p. 85.

36. Ibid., p. 152.

37. Ibid., p. 108.

35. Konishi, Ryojin hisho ko , p. 85.

36. Ibid., p. 152.

37. Ibid., p. 108.

38. Anzu, Shinto jiten , pp. 522-23. In times of grave national crisis, it was standard court procedure to dispatch special envoys to these shrines to present offerings and prayers for the nation. The origins of the system go back to ancient times, but the names and ranks (high, middle, or low) of the twenty-two shrines were fixed during the reign of Emperor Go-Suzaku (r. 1036-45). Except for the Ise Shrine, all the shrines are concen-trated in the capital area.

39. The identity of Amatsuyuwake is unknown, but there is a theory that it is in fact not a shrine name but a Shinto god worshiped in the Kiyomizu Temple. Konoshima is a shrine located in the Uzumasa area of Kyoto. See NKBZ 25:341-42.

40. This may reflect the close association of imayo singers, such as asobi and kugutsu , with that shrine.

41. Kokin (waka)rokujo is a manual in six parts for waka composition, presumably compiled by Minamoro Shitago and Prince Kaneakira (914-87). It includes 4,370 exemplary waka , more than half of which are from Man'yoshu , Kokinshu , and Gosenshu . Kaya no in shichiban utaawase is a collection of seventy waka composed during the poetry competition held in 1094 at Kaya no In, the mansion of the former chancellor Fujiwara Morozane (1042-1101). Horikawa-in hyakushuwaka is a collection of one hundred waka poems by sixteen poets, compiled by Minamoto Toshiyori and dedicated to Emperor Horikawa in 1105.

42. The poem was composed by the emperor on his pilgrimage to the Sumiyoshi Shrine in the third month of 1073, three months after his abdication. Two months later, the emperor died at the age of thirty-nine.

43. The song is based on two poems by Kakinomoto Hitomaro, nos. 1244-45 in Shuishu .

44. Konishi, Ryojin hisho ko , p. 16.

45. See Enoki, Ryojin hisho , p. 187.

46. The conch shell was used like a bugle by yarnabushi (mountain ascetics) to communicate as they roamed in the mountains.

47. See Enoki, Ryojin hisho , pp. 190-91.

1. Of a total 220 homon uta , 218 are on Buddhism, the exceptions being nos. 193 and 229; about 40 of the 204 shiku no kamiuta are on the same topic; while niku no kamiuta and the imayo in book 1 contribute minimally, with six and four songs, respectively. In fact, all four such songs in book 1—nos. 18, 19, 20, and 21—duplicate the homon uta nos. 194, 25, 23, and 22, respectively.

2. Shinma and Shida, eds., Kayo II, p. 33.

3. Monju is usually depicted riding a lion, while Fugen is shown riding a white elephant with six tusks. Fudo, who is known for his power to destroy the devils who interfere with Buddhist practice, is represented as a wrathful figure, holding a sword in his right hand, to smite the wicked, and a rope in his left, to catch and bind them, as flames rage around him. Kongosatta is the second of the first eight patriarchs of the Shingon school, to whom Dainichi directly transmitted the esoteric teaching. Myoken was worshiped in Japan for his power to cure eye diseases.

4. These are the flowers of two of the four trees in Indra's paradise; see NKBZ 25:213.

5. The verse refers to a scene in the chapter where the jeweled stupa decorated with seven gems—gold, silver, lapis lazuli, giant clam shell, coral, pearl, and carnelian—emerges from the earth and hangs suspended in midair. Although the verse does not specify, the stupa contained in it the Buddha of Many Jewels (Taho Nyorai; Prabhutaratna), a bodhisattva who had once lived in the land of Pure Jewel and had entered nirvana after making a vow that he would appear in the jeweled stupa wherever the Lotus Sutra was preached.

6. King Suddhodana was the ruler of the Sakya tribe in Kapilavastu, and Suprabuddha was a rich elder from the city of Devadarsita nearby.

7. Both the horse and Chandaka are supposed to have been born on the same day as the prince. Mount Dantaloka is located in Gandhara in the northern part of India.

8. This sutra is an important scripture in both the Tendai and Shingon schools.

9. See Mochizuki Shinko, Bukkyo daijiten , 7th ed. (Sekai Seiten Kanko Kyokai, 1972), 2:1446-47.

10. See Gary L. Ebersole, Ritual Poetry and the Politics of Death in Early Japan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), pp. 74-75, 165, 174-75, 257-61.

11. See Tsuchihashi and Konishi, eds., Kodai kayo , pp. 239-47. For an English translation and study, see Roy Andrew Miller, "The Footprints of the Buddha": An Eighth-Century Old Japanese Poetic Sequence (New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1975).

12. Actually the prince's father ruled in Kapilavastu, not the Magadha Kingdom. Magadha, the most powerful kingdom in India during Sakyamuni's time, was ruled by King Bimbisara.

13. Mount Gaya was located in the Magadha Kingdom.

14. The song is based on the story of the magnanimous faith of Sudatta (Anathapindika), a wealthy merchant of the Sravasti Kingdom, who be-came an early convert to Buddha's teaching. According to the story, the elder, to offer a place of retreat for the Buddha, attempted to buy a park owned by Prince Jeta of Sravasti Kingdom by covering the ground with gold, as he was told to by the prince. But the prince stopped his prank and donated the land to the Buddha, which later became the Jetavana Monastery, the Buddha's favorite resort where he spent summer rainy seasons for the last twenty-five years of his life. See Edward J. Thomas, The Life of Buddha as Legend and History (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, n.d.; reprint New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1927), p. 104.

15. Legend says, for example, that Ananda, to protect the Buddha from harm from animals, kept fires lit through the night on their journeys in the wilds.

16. Ananda is considered especially responsible for reciting the Buddha's teaching, which later became the basis of various sutra texts. See Thomas, Life of Buddha , pp. 166-67.

17. Pava was within a day's journey from Kusinagara, the site where the Buddha died. See ibid., p. 149.

16. Ananda is considered especially responsible for reciting the Buddha's teaching, which later became the basis of various sutra texts. See Thomas, Life of Buddha , pp. 166-67.

17. Pava was within a day's journey from Kusinagara, the site where the Buddha died. See ibid., p. 149.

18. The full name of the River Vati is Hiranyavati. The actual site where the Buddha took the meal was in the mango grove of Cunda, rather than on a seat between the twin gala trees. See "The Book of the Great Decease: Maha-parinibbana-sutta," in Buddhist Suttas , trans. T. W. Rhys Davids, The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 11 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1881; reprint New York: Dover, 1969), pp. 70-72.

19. See Thomas, Life of Buddha , pp. 149-51.

20. The Buddha is said to have passed away at midnight on the bed prepared by Ananda between twin Sala trees; see ibid., pp. 151-53.

19. See Thomas, Life of Buddha , pp. 149-51.

20. The Buddha is said to have passed away at midnight on the bed prepared by Ananda between twin Sala trees; see ibid., pp. 151-53.

21. The assembly, which had five hundred participants, was held at the

     Pippala Cavern in Rajagrja, the capital of the Magadha Kingdom; see W. Woodville Rockhill, The Life of the Buddha and the Early History of His Order (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1907), p. 151.

22. Two persons were mostly responsible for forming the canon: Upali, known for his knowledge of monastic rules, contributed to the formation of the Vinaya (regulations for the Sangha); and Ananda, through his recitation of the Buddha's oral teaching, laid the foundation for the sutras. See N. A. Jayawickrama, trans., The Inception of Discipline and the Vinaya Nidana : Bahiranidana of Buddhaghosa's "Samantapasadika ," Sacred Books of the Buddhists, vol. 21 (London: Luzac & Co., 1962), pp. 11-13.

23. The arhats are Buddhist saints. It is not clear who these sixteen saints are, but they are believed to have promised to propagate the Bud-dha's teaching eternally. See NKBT 73:500.

24. See Rockhill, Life of the Buddha , pp. 152-57.

25. Mochizuki, Bukkyo daijiten 1:842-43.

26. The Dragon-flower tree is said to be the site where Maitreya will be preaching the Buddha's Dharma.

27. Shida Nobuyoshi, Kayokenshi , 4 vols. (Shibundo, 1982), 4:376-90. Kawabata Yoshiaki sees wider implications of the interest in setsuwa expressed in homon uta ; he points out that Ryojin hisho shares a trend similarly reflected in Konjaku monogatari, a setsuwa collection presumably compiled during the reign of Emperors Shirakawa and Toba. See Geinoshi Kenkyukai, ed., Nihon geinoshi 2:127-30.

28. The Triple Body, sanjin (Tri-kaya) is a Tendai interpretation of the identity of the Buddha as existing simultaneously in three dimensions. The first, the "Body of the Dharma" ( hosshin ; Dharma-kaya), sees the Buddha as the eternal metaphysical principle, transcending all human perceptions. This aspect of the Buddha can be termed the universal Buddha-soul, embodied in his teachings; it may be roughly equated with the divine logos in Christian theology. The second, the "Body of Manifestation" ( ojin ; Nirmana-kaya), refers to the historical Buddha, manifested in physical form to make the Dharma accessible to human sense perceptions and to save the people. The third, the "Body of Reward (or Bliss)" ( hojin ; Sambhoga-kaya), means a nirvanic state of celestial wisdom obtained through enlightenment. See Anesaki Masaharu, History of Japanese Religion (Rutland, Vt.: Charles E. Tuttle, 1963), pp. 113-18.

29. The ten evils are killing, stealing, adultery, lying, flattery, defaming, duplicity, greed, anger, and stupidity or perverted views. The five vices vary depending on the sutra cited, but the most commonly accepted are patricide, matricide, killing an arhat , injuring a Buddha, and causing disunity in the community of believers. Transgression of any of these will cause one to fall into a hell of eternal suffering.

30. The content of this song is based on an Amidist convention that

     allows a dying person to hang threads in five colors on the hands of Areida's statue and hold the end of them in the hope of salvation in the Pure Land. The song is based on poem no. 1925, Shinkokinshu , composed by the priest Hoen of the early eleventh century.

31. Amida, being supernatural, is endowed with forty teeth instead of the usual thirty-two.

32. ''The eastern gate of the Pure Land paradise" in the song refers to the Tennoji Temple in Osaka, founded by the Prince Shotoku. See NKBZ 25:244, note to song no. 176.

33. Mochizuki, Bukkyo daijiten 1:802.

34. Among Yakushi's twelve vows, the seventh is his pledge to gratify mundane needs such as curing illnesses and providing clothes and house-hold supplies.

35. This song is the same as the one sung by Go-Shirakawa at Otomae's sickbed; see chapter 1.

36. Jizo, known to live on Mount Karavika, is credited with power over the hells. He is devoted to saving all creatures during the period between the death of the historical Buddha and the advent of Maitreya, the future Buddha.

37. The four major disciples are Subhuti, Maudgalyayana, Mahakatyayana, and Mahakasyapa; in some groupings, Subhuti is replaced by Sariputra. This homon uta was sung by Enju, an accomplished female imayo singer of kugutsu origin, when she was praised by Emperor Go-Shirakawa for her superior command in imayo singing. See NKBT 73:459-60.

38. Shinma and Shida, eds., Kayo II , p. 85. The fascination with cormorant fishermen appears already in Man'yoshu —Kakinomoto Hito-maro touched upon cormorant fishermen in passing (no. 38; Kojima Noriyuki, Konoshita Masatoshi, and Satake Akihito, eds., Man'yoshu , 4 vols., Nihon Koten Bungaku Zenshu, vols. 2-5 [Shogakkan, 1971-75], 2:84) and Otomo Yakamochi has two poems on the subject (nos. 4011 and 4156, ibid., 5:221, 302). Heike monogatari also includes a remark on a fisherman's killing a turtle to feed his cormorant (Ichiko, ed., Heike mono-gatari 1:466). Later in the medieval period, the same topic is given a new Buddhist interpretation in the Noh drama "Ukai," attributed to Zeami; see Yokomichi and Omote, Yokyokushu 1:174-80.

37. The four major disciples are Subhuti, Maudgalyayana, Mahakatyayana, and Mahakasyapa; in some groupings, Subhuti is replaced by Sariputra. This homon uta was sung by Enju, an accomplished female imayo singer of kugutsu origin, when she was praised by Emperor Go-Shirakawa for her superior command in imayo singing. See NKBT 73:459-60.

38. Shinma and Shida, eds., Kayo II , p. 85. The fascination with cormorant fishermen appears already in Man'yoshu —Kakinomoto Hito-maro touched upon cormorant fishermen in passing (no. 38; Kojima Noriyuki, Konoshita Masatoshi, and Satake Akihito, eds., Man'yoshu , 4 vols., Nihon Koten Bungaku Zenshu, vols. 2-5 [Shogakkan, 1971-75], 2:84) and Otomo Yakamochi has two poems on the subject (nos. 4011 and 4156, ibid., 5:221, 302). Heike monogatari also includes a remark on a fisherman's killing a turtle to feed his cormorant (Ichiko, ed., Heike mono-gatari 1:466). Later in the medieval period, the same topic is given a new Buddhist interpretation in the Noh drama "Ukai," attributed to Zeami; see Yokomichi and Omote, Yokyokushu 1:174-80.

39. See Takagi Yutaka, Heian jidai hokke bukkyoshi kenkyu (Kyoto: Heirakuji Shoten, 1978), pp. 248-50; also p. 224 for further details.

40. They are nos. 35,110-19, 208, 231, 291-93,424, and 492.

41. The enmity between the cousins is believed to have begun when Sakyamuni, as a twelve-year-old boy, took care of a goose wounded by an arrow shot by the mischievous Devadatta. The five charges against De-vadatta were (1) destroying the harmony in the Sangha, (2) injuring the Buddha with a stone, shedding his blood, (3) inducing a king to let loose

     a rutting elephant to trample the Buddha, (4) killing a nun, and (5) putting poison on his own fingernails and saluting the Buddha with his hands, intending to kill him. See Mochizuki, Bukkyo daijiten 4:3352.

42. The Buddha could obtain the privilege of transmission of the Lotus Sutra from Asita by serving him for a thousand years. His service included picking fruits, drawing water, gathering firewood, preparing food, making a couch for him of his own body—and being patient under all circumstances. See Hurvitz, Scripture , p. 195.

43. The Dragon King, a ruler in his ocean palace in Sagara, north of Mount Sumeru, is said to possess priceless pearls; see Mochizuki, Bukkyo daijiten 3:2117.

44. The notion of the five obstacles refers to women's inherent inability to become any one of the following five beings: (1) the Brahmas King, a god who resides on Mount Sumeru and rules this world; (2) the Indra King, another god who protects this world; (3) the King of Mara, a devil king; (4) the wheel-turning Cakravarti King, the preacher king; and (5) the buddhas.

45. See Nancy Auer Falk, "The Case of the Vanishing Nuns: The Fruits of Ambivalence in Ancient Indian Buddhism;' in Unspoken Worlds: Women's Religious Lives in Non-Western Cultures , ed. Nancy Auer Falk and Rita M. Gross (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1980), p. 216.

46. Diana Y. Paul, Women in Buddhism: Images of the Feminine in Mahayana Tradition , 2d ed. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985), p. 5.

47. Kasahara Kazuo, Nyonin ojo shiso no keifu (Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 1975), pp. 5-6.

48. Ibid., p. 6. The Shinjikankyo (or Daijohonjo shinjikankyo , Sutra of the Contemplation on the Base of Mind) has as its central theme the achievement of buddhahood by renouncing the world and by discarding all delusions through meditation.

49. Ibid., p. 11.

47. Kasahara Kazuo, Nyonin ojo shiso no keifu (Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 1975), pp. 5-6.

48. Ibid., p. 6. The Shinjikankyo (or Daijohonjo shinjikankyo , Sutra of the Contemplation on the Base of Mind) has as its central theme the achievement of buddhahood by renouncing the world and by discarding all delusions through meditation.

49. Ibid., p. 11.

47. Kasahara Kazuo, Nyonin ojo shiso no keifu (Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 1975), pp. 5-6.

48. Ibid., p. 6. The Shinjikankyo (or Daijohonjo shinjikankyo , Sutra of the Contemplation on the Base of Mind) has as its central theme the achievement of buddhahood by renouncing the world and by discarding all delusions through meditation.

49. Ibid., p. 11.

50. "This chapter" refers to the Devadatta chapter.

51. According to Diana Paul, "the Naga princesses in general were especially renowned for their beauty, wit and charm, and were claimed to be the female ancestors of some South Indian dynasties. They were delicate water-sprite creatures similar to mermaids" ( Women in Buddhism , p. 185).

52. Hurvitz, Scripture , p. 264.

53. Takagi, Heian jidai hokke bukkyoshi kenkyu , pp. 192-93. Among the five recommended activities, the first ever undertaken were lectures by Prince Shotoku in 605, during the tenth year of the Empress Suiko's reign (592-628).

54. Ibid.

53. Takagi, Heian jidai hokke bukkyoshi kenkyu , pp. 192-93. Among the five recommended activities, the first ever undertaken were lectures by Prince Shotoku in 605, during the tenth year of the Empress Suiko's reign (592-628).

54. Ibid.

55. A good number of songs extol the value of listening to the Lotus

     Sutra; examples are nos. 32, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 81, 85, 87 , 117, 122, 133, 134, 138, 149, and 154. Besides these songs, close to ten songs in homon uta stress the importance of listening to the sutras in general.

56. There are nine songs on the efficacy of reading, three on chanting, two on expounding, and only one on copying.

57. The Medicine King (Bhaisajya-raja) is a bodhisattva who cures all illnesses. He is the central figure in chapter 23 of the Lotus Sutra, "Yakuo" (Medicine King), which recounts the austerities he endured in his previous life in order to aquire such healing power.

58. Arjaka trees grow in India and other tropical regions. It is said that when a branch of this tree falls to the ground it splits into seven pieces. NKBZ 25:240.

59. The following discussion is based largely on Takagi, Heian jidai hokke bukkyoshi kenkyu , pp. 196-250.

60. Several such events are worthy of note. Hokke hakko (eight recitations of the Lotus Sutra) is a ritual in which the eight scrolls of the Lotus Sutra are recited, usually in association with the memorial service. Hokke jikko (ten recitations of the Lotus Sutra), first established by Saicho in 798 on the anniversary of death of Chih-i, covers the opening and closing scrolls in addition to the eight main scrolls of the sutra. Hokke sanjuko (thirty recitations of the Lotus Sutra) is based on the chanting of the twenty-eight chapters of the sutra plus its closing and opening chapters. And hokke choko (long recitation of the Lotus Sutra), a ritual performed first by Saicho in 809, is in essence a prayer for the country's security accomplished by reading selected parts from the sutra. See Takagi, Heian jidai hokke bukkyoshi kenkyu , pp. 202-5.

61. He collaborated on a sequence of waka , titled "Ei hokkekyo nijuhachis hon ka" (Songs in Praise of the Twenty-eight Chapters of the Lotus Sutra), in 1002 with such nobles as Fujiwara Kinto, Fujiwara Tadanobu, Fujiwara Yukinari, and Minamoto Toshikata (960-1027); the work was dedicated to the memory of his sister, Tosanjo-in. Together with Hosshin wakashu (Collection of Poems on Religious Awakenings, 1012) by Princess Senshi dai Saiin, this work is considered to be the harbinger of the shakkyoka , waka on Buddhist themes. See ibid., p. 209.

62. Ibid., pp. 233-42.

63. Ibid., pp. 244-47.

64. Ibid., pp. 247-50.

60. Several such events are worthy of note. Hokke hakko (eight recitations of the Lotus Sutra) is a ritual in which the eight scrolls of the Lotus Sutra are recited, usually in association with the memorial service. Hokke jikko (ten recitations of the Lotus Sutra), first established by Saicho in 798 on the anniversary of death of Chih-i, covers the opening and closing scrolls in addition to the eight main scrolls of the sutra. Hokke sanjuko (thirty recitations of the Lotus Sutra) is based on the chanting of the twenty-eight chapters of the sutra plus its closing and opening chapters. And hokke choko (long recitation of the Lotus Sutra), a ritual performed first by Saicho in 809, is in essence a prayer for the country's security accomplished by reading selected parts from the sutra. See Takagi, Heian jidai hokke bukkyoshi kenkyu , pp. 202-5.

61. He collaborated on a sequence of waka , titled "Ei hokkekyo nijuhachis hon ka" (Songs in Praise of the Twenty-eight Chapters of the Lotus Sutra), in 1002 with such nobles as Fujiwara Kinto, Fujiwara Tadanobu, Fujiwara Yukinari, and Minamoto Toshikata (960-1027); the work was dedicated to the memory of his sister, Tosanjo-in. Together with Hosshin wakashu (Collection of Poems on Religious Awakenings, 1012) by Princess Senshi dai Saiin, this work is considered to be the harbinger of the shakkyoka , waka on Buddhist themes. See ibid., p. 209.

62. Ibid., pp. 233-42.

63. Ibid., pp. 244-47.

64. Ibid., pp. 247-50.

60. Several such events are worthy of note. Hokke hakko (eight recitations of the Lotus Sutra) is a ritual in which the eight scrolls of the Lotus Sutra are recited, usually in association with the memorial service. Hokke jikko (ten recitations of the Lotus Sutra), first established by Saicho in 798 on the anniversary of death of Chih-i, covers the opening and closing scrolls in addition to the eight main scrolls of the sutra. Hokke sanjuko (thirty recitations of the Lotus Sutra) is based on the chanting of the twenty-eight chapters of the sutra plus its closing and opening chapters. And hokke choko (long recitation of the Lotus Sutra), a ritual performed first by Saicho in 809, is in essence a prayer for the country's security accomplished by reading selected parts from the sutra. See Takagi, Heian jidai hokke bukkyoshi kenkyu , pp. 202-5.

61. He collaborated on a sequence of waka , titled "Ei hokkekyo nijuhachis hon ka" (Songs in Praise of the Twenty-eight Chapters of the Lotus Sutra), in 1002 with such nobles as Fujiwara Kinto, Fujiwara Tadanobu, Fujiwara Yukinari, and Minamoto Toshikata (960-1027); the work was dedicated to the memory of his sister, Tosanjo-in. Together with Hosshin wakashu (Collection of Poems on Religious Awakenings, 1012) by Princess Senshi dai Saiin, this work is considered to be the harbinger of the shakkyoka , waka on Buddhist themes. See ibid., p. 209.

62. Ibid., pp. 233-42.

63. Ibid., pp. 244-47.

64. Ibid., pp. 247-50.

60. Several such events are worthy of note. Hokke hakko (eight recitations of the Lotus Sutra) is a ritual in which the eight scrolls of the Lotus Sutra are recited, usually in association with the memorial service. Hokke jikko (ten recitations of the Lotus Sutra), first established by Saicho in 798 on the anniversary of death of Chih-i, covers the opening and closing scrolls in addition to the eight main scrolls of the sutra. Hokke sanjuko (thirty recitations of the Lotus Sutra) is based on the chanting of the twenty-eight chapters of the sutra plus its closing and opening chapters. And hokke choko (long recitation of the Lotus Sutra), a ritual performed first by Saicho in 809, is in essence a prayer for the country's security accomplished by reading selected parts from the sutra. See Takagi, Heian jidai hokke bukkyoshi kenkyu , pp. 202-5.

61. He collaborated on a sequence of waka , titled "Ei hokkekyo nijuhachis hon ka" (Songs in Praise of the Twenty-eight Chapters of the Lotus Sutra), in 1002 with such nobles as Fujiwara Kinto, Fujiwara Tadanobu, Fujiwara Yukinari, and Minamoto Toshikata (960-1027); the work was dedicated to the memory of his sister, Tosanjo-in. Together with Hosshin wakashu (Collection of Poems on Religious Awakenings, 1012) by Princess Senshi dai Saiin, this work is considered to be the harbinger of the shakkyoka , waka on Buddhist themes. See ibid., p. 209.

62. Ibid., pp. 233-42.

63. Ibid., pp. 244-47.

64. Ibid., pp. 247-50.

60. Several such events are worthy of note. Hokke hakko (eight recitations of the Lotus Sutra) is a ritual in which the eight scrolls of the Lotus Sutra are recited, usually in association with the memorial service. Hokke jikko (ten recitations of the Lotus Sutra), first established by Saicho in 798 on the anniversary of death of Chih-i, covers the opening and closing scrolls in addition to the eight main scrolls of the sutra. Hokke sanjuko (thirty recitations of the Lotus Sutra) is based on the chanting of the twenty-eight chapters of the sutra plus its closing and opening chapters. And hokke choko (long recitation of the Lotus Sutra), a ritual performed first by Saicho in 809, is in essence a prayer for the country's security accomplished by reading selected parts from the sutra. See Takagi, Heian jidai hokke bukkyoshi kenkyu , pp. 202-5.

61. He collaborated on a sequence of waka , titled "Ei hokkekyo nijuhachis hon ka" (Songs in Praise of the Twenty-eight Chapters of the Lotus Sutra), in 1002 with such nobles as Fujiwara Kinto, Fujiwara Tadanobu, Fujiwara Yukinari, and Minamoto Toshikata (960-1027); the work was dedicated to the memory of his sister, Tosanjo-in. Together with Hosshin wakashu (Collection of Poems on Religious Awakenings, 1012) by Princess Senshi dai Saiin, this work is considered to be the harbinger of the shakkyoka , waka on Buddhist themes. See ibid., p. 209.

62. Ibid., pp. 233-42.

63. Ibid., pp. 244-47.

64. Ibid., pp. 247-50.

65. The six roots refer to the six sensory organs of eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind, which are regarded as the source of earthly desire, attachment, and spiritual defilement.

66. Joseph M. Kitagawa, Religion in Japanese History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1966), pp. 69-70.

67. Murayama, Honji suijaku , pp. 212-19, 251-302.

68. Mount Tendai is in fact Mount Hiei, on which Enryakuji Temple,

     the center of the Tendai school, is located. The Eastern Shrine means the Hie Shrine complex, located at the foot of Mount Hiei, to the east of the Heian capital.

69. The term comes from Lao-tzu's Tao-te ching (The Way and Its Power), where it refers to the value of self-effacement as a moral precept. Chih-i first borrowed the aphorism and gave it a Buddhist twist in his work Mo-ho chih kuan . See Sekiguchi Shizuo, "Wako dojin: Ryojin hisho to honji suijaku shiso," Nihon kayo kenkyu 17 (April 1978): 10.

70. Besides the songs so far discussed, nos. 242, 243, 245, and 417, among others, are also related to the Tendai-Hie syncretism.

71. For details of the ranks and syncretic identities of these shrines, see Okada Yoneo, Jinja , Nihonshi Kohyakka, vol. 1 (Kindo Shuppansha, 1977), pp. 172-74. The Sanno syncretism was presumably designed to win over to Buddhism the peasantry in the Mount Hiei area, who were closely tied to the kami , believed to govern their agrarian existence. See Daigan Matsunaga and Alicia Matsunaga, Foundation of Japanese Buddhism , 2 vols. (Los Angeles: Buddhist Books International, 1976), 2:294.

72. It was under the Bodhi tree that Sakyamuni is reported to have attained his enlightenment.

73. The interest in the Hie syncretic mandala is proved by the fact that among extant mandala on Shinto shrines, those dealing with the Hie complex outnumber all others. See Murayama, Honji suijaku , p. 283.

74. The Mount Kinbu compound is divided into forty-one quarters, just like Maitreya's Tusita Heaven is supposed to be. See NKBZ 25:266-67.

75. Murayama Shuichi, Shinbutsu shugo shicho (Kyoto: Heirakuji Shoten, 1957), pp. 79-80.

76. For a complete list of these divinities, see Okada, Jinja , p. 226.

77. The Nagusa Beach and Waka Bay are located near Mount Nagusa in Wakayama City, Kii Province. An almost identical song was sung by Emperor Go-Shirakawa at the Nagaoka Shrine on his first Kumano pil-grimage in 1160. See NKBT 73:461.

78. Murayama, Honji suijaku , pp. 169-70.

79. "Buddhist Pilgrimage in South and Southeast Asia," in The Encyclopedia of Religion , ed. Mircea Eliade (New York: Macmillan, 1987), 11:348.

80. Joseph M. Kitagawa, On Understanding Japanese Religion (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987), p. 129.

81. Ichiro Hori, Folk Religion in Japan: Continuity and Change (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), pp. 159-60.

82. Laurence Bresler, "The Origins of Popular Travel and Travel Literature in Japan" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1975), p. 39.

83. The Kamo River, originating in the north of Kyoto, flows south-ward through the eastern part of the capital and empties into the Katsura

     River. The Yodo ford was at the site where the Katsura and Uji rivers joined, to the southwest of Kyoto. Yawata, where the Iwashimizu Hachi-man Shrine is located, is where the three tributary rivers, the Katsura, Uji, and Kizu, converge to form the Yodo River.

84. Hachiman was given the title of "Great Bodhisattva," a shortened form of "Great Bodhisattva of National Protection with Miraculous and Divine Power," in 781 by the Nara court. For details of Hachiman's Buddhistic deification, see Murayama, Honji suijaku , pp. 60-61.

85. The Saikoku circuit pilgrimage covers thirty-three temples that have Kannon as their main object of worship, the number coming from the thirty-three different forms Kannon is believed to take. The pilgrimage begins at Seigantoji Temple at Nachi Falls in Kumano and ends at Kegonji Temple in Gifu Prefecture. The Shikoku pilgrimage, undertaken in memory of Kukai, is confined to the island of Shikoku and covers eighty-eight sites. It begins at Ryozenji Temple and ends at Okuboji Temple. For detailed explanations and lists of the temples on these two circuit routes, see Nakao Takashi, Koji juntel jiten (Tokyodo Shuppan, 1979), pp. 90-107, 112-51. The Shikoku pilgrimage was supposedly established during the twelfth or thirteenth century; see Kitagawa, On Understanding Japanese Religion , pp. 133-34.

86. For a discussion on the development of this circuit, see James H. Foard, "The Boundaries of Compassion: Buddhism and National Tradition in Japanese Pilgrimage," Journal of Asian Studies 41 (1982): 231-51.

87. They were called goeika (holy chant) or junreika (pilgrim's chant); see Kitagawa, On Understanding Japanese Religion , p. 131.

88. Kiyomizu Temple in Kyoto is the sixteenth stop; Ishiyama Temple, located in Otsu, Shiga Prefecture, is the thirteenth; Hase Temple, in Sakurai City, Nara Prefecture, is the eighth; Kogawa Temple, in Waka-yama Prefecture, is the third; and Rokkakudo Temple (Chohoji), in Kyoto, is the eighteenth. Hikone Temple, in Shiga Prefecture, does not, however, belong to this pilgrimate route.

89. Many sites quoted in the song no longer exist as such or are unidentifiable. The following are those that have been identified. Kyogoku is the street that ran from north to south in the eastern end of the Heian capital, while Gojo Street is one of the major east-west streets through the middle of the capital. Rokuharado refers to Rokuharamitsuji Temple, founded by Kuya Shonin and located in Higashiyama-ku in Kyoto; Otagi-dera is located to the north of Rokuharamitsuji. Yasaka Temple is in fact Hokanji Temple, one of the seven major temples in the Heian capital; most of its buildings are gone now except for the five-story pagoda popularly known as the Yasaka Pagoda. Gion Shrine refers to the Yasaka Shrine, famous for the Gion festival. The "curious waterfall" is Otowa Falls, a small cascade emerging from Mount Otowa at the back of Kiyomizu Temple. An interesting feature of the falls is its three-forked stream

     issuing from the rocks, as noted in the song. See NKBZ 25:280-81; Kanaoka Shuyu, Koji meisatsu jiten (Tokyodo Shuppan, 1970), pp. 87-88.

90. Uchi no Dori refers to the area where the imperial palace was located. Nishi no Kyo is the area to the west of Suzaku Oji Street, which ran down the middle of the capital, dividing it into the eastern and western sections. The Tokiwa forest was to the west of the capital, near Koryuji Temple. The Oi River passes along the Arashiyama area, where courtesans often gathered. NKBZ 25:278; Kanaoka, Koji meisatsu jiten , p. 305.

91. The Ima-Kibune Shrine mentioned here may be one located in the village of Fusamoto in Isumino District, Chiba Prefecture, though there were many Ima-Kibune shrines throughout Japan (see NKBT 73:516). Just as the divinites at the Kumano and Hie shrines were invoked and moved to new shrine sites called Ima-Kumano and Ima-Hie, the deities worshiped in the Kibune Shrine must have been transferred and enshrined at sites other than the main site in the Heian capital. See NKBZ 25:269.

92. Most Japanese scholars use the terms yamabushi, shugenja , and shugyoja interchangeably.

93. Ichiro Hori, "On the Concept of Hijiri (Holy-Man)," Numen 5 (1958): 134, 199, 229. Gyogi's public service work for lower-class people included founding a charity hospital, a charity dispensary, an orphanage, and an old people's home; the establishment of free rooming houses; the excavation of canals for navigation and for irrigation; reservoir building; and bridge and harbor construction. For his work, Gyogi was popularly called "Bodhisattva" during his lifetime.

94. Hori, Folk Religion in Japan , pp. 177-78.

95. According to legend, En no Gyoja, after a one-thousand-day confinement on Mount Kinbu, received magical power from Kongozao gongen, who revealed himself to the ascetic, bursting from the depths of the earth with flames emanating from his back. See Miyake Hitoshi, Yamabushi: sono kodo to soshiki (Hyoronsha, 1973), pp. 29-30.

96. Ibid., pp. 21, 29-30, 175.

95. According to legend, En no Gyoja, after a one-thousand-day confinement on Mount Kinbu, received magical power from Kongozao gongen, who revealed himself to the ascetic, bursting from the depths of the earth with flames emanating from his back. See Miyake Hitoshi, Yamabushi: sono kodo to soshiki (Hyoronsha, 1973), pp. 29-30.

96. Ibid., pp. 21, 29-30, 175.

97. See Nakao Takashi, Koji junrei jiten , p. 104.

98. See Kanaoka, Koji meisatsu jiten , pp. 61, 65; and Okada, Jinja , p. 211.

99. See Kanaoka, Koji meisatsu jiten , pp. 321-22.

100. See Joseph M. Kitagawa, "Three Types of Pilgrimage in Japan," in On Understanding Japanese Religion , pp. 127-36.

101. See Okada, Jinja , pp. 272, 277; Kanaoka, Koji meisatsu jiten , pp.

150, 214, 264-65; and Nakao, Koji junrei jiten , p. 124.

102. Shida, Kayokenshi 4:390-91.

103. The "Kumano sankei" (Kumano pilgrimage), a soka (a fast-tempoed song or enkyoku , banquet song—a song genre that flourished during

     the Kamakura and Muromachi periods) included in Enkyokusho (Selected Enkyoku , ca. 1296) by Myoku, a prolific Kamakura-era composer of songs, lists a number of subshrines on the Kumano pilgrimage route and obliquely refers to the difficulties involved in the long journey. For the text of the song, see Takano, ed., Nihon kayo shusei , 5:71-75.

104. Murakami Toshio, Shugendo no hattatsu (Unebo Shobo, 1943), pp. 196, 304-18.

105. Miyake Hitoshi, Shugendo : yamabushi no rekishi to shiso (Kyoikusha, 1978), p. 112.

106. The Suzu Cape, located at the tip of the Noto Peninsula in Ishi-kawa Prefecture, is one of the most rugged areas in northeastern Japan. The Koshi (or Hokuriku) Road, in one of Japan's roughest regions, covers the area from Wakasa and Echizen in Fukui Prefecture to Echigo and Sado in Niigata Prefecture.

107. A stole is made of small pieces of cloth sewn together and worn over a monk's robe; it stands for his ability to withstand insults and persecutions. See NKBZ 25:277, 519. The wicker basket contains various items, including small icons, clothing, and foodstuffs. An ascetic with the basket on his back stands for an embryo; that is, he is a spiritual child about to be born. See Miyake, Yamabushi , pp. 147-48. The Complete Shikoku circuit required about sixty very difficult days on foot, and some-times resulted in deaths owing to its severity; see Nakao, Koji junrei jiten , p. 113.

108. Carmen Blacker, The Catalpa Bow: A Study of Shamanistic Practices in Japan (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1975), p. 92. The practice was also highly valued in the Kumano pilgrimage and performed as often as circumstances allowed en route; see Miyaji, Kumano sanzan no shiteki kenkyu , p. 403.

109. See Mircea Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1959), pp. 183-84. The hardship of "walking" in pilgrimage is also the topic in shiku no kamiuta nos. 258 and 300.

110. The tree knots are hollowed out and used as begging bowls; see NKBZ 25:278. The deer horns are used as a decoration on top of the ascetic's staff. The dotted deerskin is worn over the ascetic's outer garment. His staff has six metal rings inserted into its head; their clanking noises when shaken are used to beat rhythms for chanting or to warn off harmful animals in the mountains. See Miyake, Yamabushi , p. 146.

111. At least sixteen items constituted the typical yamabushi necessities: headband, hat (or headgear), robe, stole, bugle, rosary, a staff deco-rated with metal rings, a wicker basket in which a wooden box is inserted, a wooden stick, a piece of cloth or animal skin, leggings, fan, knife, ropes, and straw sandals. For the esoteric meaning of each, see ibid., pp. 21, 141-53.

110. The tree knots are hollowed out and used as begging bowls; see NKBZ 25:278. The deer horns are used as a decoration on top of the ascetic's staff. The dotted deerskin is worn over the ascetic's outer garment. His staff has six metal rings inserted into its head; their clanking noises when shaken are used to beat rhythms for chanting or to warn off harmful animals in the mountains. See Miyake, Yamabushi , p. 146.

111. At least sixteen items constituted the typical yamabushi necessities: headband, hat (or headgear), robe, stole, bugle, rosary, a staff deco-rated with metal rings, a wicker basket in which a wooden box is inserted, a wooden stick, a piece of cloth or animal skin, leggings, fan, knife, ropes, and straw sandals. For the esoteric meaning of each, see ibid., pp. 21, 141-53.

112. Murakami, Shugendo no hattatsu , p. 132.

113. Mount Hira, located to the north of Mount Hiei, is one of the eight scenic views of the Omi region. Horsetails are plants related to ferns.

114. Hori, "On the Concept of Hijiri, " p. 228.

115. For details of their associations, see Nakayama, Nihon mikoshi , pp. 425-41.

116. Most of the jinja uta are taken from "Congratulations," "Shinto," or "Miscellaneous" sections of the imperial or private anthologies.

117. For the related subject of poems of praise, see Ebersole, Ritual Poetry , pp. 34-50.

118. In this section, bracketed references following the Ryojin hisho song number identify the source waka on which the songs were based.

119. The literal meaning of the name of Iwashimizu Shrine, "rock-clear water," supposedly originates from the water that gushed out of the rocks at the front of the shrine. See Nihon chimei daijiten , 7 vols. (Asakura Shoten, 1967), 1: 726.

120. Mount Matsuno-o, where the Matsuno-o Shrine stands, is located to the south of Mount Arashiyama in the western outskirts of the Heian capital.

121. The poet was one of the compilers of Gosenshu . The headnote says that the poem was composed to celebrate the birth of a son in a Minamoto family. The Hirano Shrine is located to the north of the capital. The Imaki no Kami, one of the divinities worshiped in the shrine, is the tutelary divinity of the Minamoto clan. See NKBZ 25:331.

122. The headnote to this waka says that it was composed for the coming-of-age ceremony in 935 at the residence of Fujiwara Saneyori (900-970), one of the powerful Fujiwara regents. Mount Oshio is located to the west of the capital, and the Oharano Shrine stands at its foot. The shrine was regarded with great respect by both the imperial family and the Fujiwara clan.

123. The Mitarashi River flows through the middle of the Kamigamo Shrine and then joins the Kamo River. Kamiyama refers to Mount Kamo, located to the east of the shrine.

124. No source poem has been identified for this song.

125. The headnote says that the poem was written during the winter festival at Kamo Shrine.

126. The headnote says that the poem was composed on the occasion of Emperor Ichijo's first visit to Matsuno-o Shrine in 1004.

127. The headnote says that the poet composed the poem on the morning of the winter Kamo festival, for which she was chosen as a messenger. She attached the poem to the decorative wisteria blossoms and sent them to the wife of Fujiwara Michinaga.

128. The headnote says that the poem was composed when the poet served as a messenger at the Hirano festival for the first time.

129. The poem was composed during the waka competition on the congratulatory theme held at the mansion of Fujiwara Morozane (1042-1101). Mount Mikasa is located near Kasuga Shrine in Nara, which is the Fujiwara main tutelary shrine.

130. Inari Shrine is located in the Fushimi-ku, to the south of the Heian capital.

1. Mountain wardens guarded the mountains against the unlawful felling of trees. A line-by-line parallel between this song and no. 284, which describes the physical features of the Fudo, can be noted. The precision of duplication is striking, allowing the possibility of an intended parody of Fudo. See NKBZ 25:305.

2. The Nishiyamadori is near Mount Arashiyama to the west of the Heian capital; the Katsura River flows past this area.

3. From the mid-Heian period, the western section of the capital began to deteriorate, and by the end of the period it was populated only by the poor. The area, especially along the Katsura and Oi rivers, was known as a gathering place for prostitutes. See Watanabe, Ryojin hisho , pp. 144-46.

4. See ibid., p. 146. Song no. 387 is a list of birds—which may also be names of courtesans.

3. From the mid-Heian period, the western section of the capital began to deteriorate, and by the end of the period it was populated only by the poor. The area, especially along the Katsura and Oi rivers, was known as a gathering place for prostitutes. See Watanabe, Ryojin hisho , pp. 144-46.

4. See ibid., p. 146. Song no. 387 is a list of birds—which may also be names of courtesans.

5. See NKBZ 25:297.

6. Awazu refers to the area southeast of Otsu.

7. Watanabe, Ryojin hisho , p. 226.

8. Osaka refers to the barrier west of Otsu city; Narazaka is a hill north of Nara city; the Fuwa Barrier is in Gifu Prefecture; and Mount Kurikoma is located in Uji, south of Kyoto.

9. The word kaza originally meant a young male between twelve and sixteen years of age who had completed the coming-of-age ceremony.

10. NKBZ 25:288.

11. Kusuha was located in Hirakata City in Osaka-Fu; a kiln is believed to have existed once nearby. See NKBZ 25:298.

12. Watanabe, Ryojin hisho , pp. 137-38.

13. Pale yellow-green ( kijin or kikujin ) was one of the colors reserved for the coats for emperors, not to be used by courtiers without court permission; see NKBT 73:408.

14. Since the Sumiyoshi Shrine consists of four major shrines, it is called Sumiyoshi shisho (Sumiyoshi four shrines). The location of Matsuga-saki is unclear.

15. Konoshima Shrine is located in Uzumasa, an area in the western part of Kyoto.

16. "Three" here refers to the three divisions of the Inari Shrine system, into lower, middle, high.

17. For similar interpretations, see Watanabe, Ryojin hisho , pp. 224-29.

18. Yamashiro refers to the present-day Kyoto-Fu; the area was noted for its eggplants. See ibid., p. 228.

19. All the places mentioned are located in the same mountainous area just northeast of the Heian capital. They were famous for firewood, char-coal, and wood products. See ibid., p. 205.

17. For similar interpretations, see Watanabe, Ryojin hisho , pp. 224-29.

18. Yamashiro refers to the present-day Kyoto-Fu; the area was noted for its eggplants. See ibid., p. 228.

19. All the places mentioned are located in the same mountainous area just northeast of the Heian capital. They were famous for firewood, char-coal, and wood products. See ibid., p. 205.

17. For similar interpretations, see Watanabe, Ryojin hisho , pp. 224-29.

18. Yamashiro refers to the present-day Kyoto-Fu; the area was noted for its eggplants. See ibid., p. 228.

19. All the places mentioned are located in the same mountainous area just northeast of the Heian capital. They were famous for firewood, char-coal, and wood products. See ibid., p. 205.

20. The oharame were known as one of the remarkable sights in the capital; see Fuzoku jiten (Tokyodo Shuppan, 1957), p. 80.

21. Mount Miwa is located in Sakurai City in Nara Prefecture. The song is a variation of Kokinshu poem no. 982.

22. Enoki ( Ryojin hisho , p. 145) takes the rush hat to be a symbol for the male sexual organ. A rush hat was wide-brimmed, with a small cone-shaped part protruding from its center to accommodate topknots. It was worn by warriors while hunting, traveling, or during archery exercises on horseback. See Kokugo daijiten (Shogakkan, 1981), p. 77.

23. See Man'yoshu , nos. 2606, 2911, 2912; and saibara song no. 5, "Nuki kawa," in NKBZ 25:127.

24. Michinoku refers to the present-day Aomori Prefecture, located in northeastern Honshu. Suruga is the present-day Sizuoka Prefecture.

25. The song is adapted from Man'yoshu poem no. 2798.

26. The word otoko (man) used here is rarely found in waka to refer to one's lover; here it indicates that the couple's relationship was mainly physical. Saigo Nobutsuna, Ryojin hisho , Nihon Shijinsen, vol. 22 (Chikuma Shobo, 1976), p. 9.

27. Devils were ordinarily believed to have one or at most two horns; see Enoki, Ryojin hisho , p. 143.

28. This song may have been the same imayo , "Ike no ukikusa" (A Floating Duckweed on a Lake), that the nobles sang during the party described in Murasaki Shikibu nikki ; see Ikeda, Kishigami, and Akiyama, eds., Makura no soshi , Murasaki Shikibu nikki , pp. 503-4.

29. For some different interpretations of the song, see Enoki, Ryojin hisho , p. 151; Konishi, Ryojin hisho , p. 468; Saigo, Ryojin hisho , pp. 20-25; Shida Nobuyoshi, Ryojin hisho hyokai , rev. ed. (Yuseido, 1977), pp. 172-73; and Shinma and Shida, Kayo II , pp. 88-89.

30. Waka no Ura is the bay at Wakayama City and is a famous place for poetic association. See also song no. 259.

31. The Moji Barrier, a checkpoint located in what is today Kitakyushu City, was the most important gateway to the Kyushu region during the Heian period.

32. Watanabe, Ryojin hisho , p. 162. In ancient times, mirrors were

     made of metal, usually bronze, and so required periodic polishing to keep them from tarnishing.

33. See Baba Mitsuko, Imayo no kokoro to kotoba: ''Ryojin hisho " no sekai (Miyai Shoten, 1987), p. 48.

34. Book 2 of Kojidan is the source of the story about the wretched last days of Sei Shonagon; see Ichiko, ed., Nihon bungaku zenshi 2:272.

35. The kubichi (or wana , trap) refers to circular snares made of rope or strips of bamboo in which food was placed to lure birds or animals. See Kogo jiten (Iwanami Shoten, 1974), p. 413; Kokugo daijiten , p. 2521.

36. The Byodoin in Uji was the residence of Fujiwara Yorimichi, built in 1052.

37. The Weaver Maiden, a tragic heroine in Chinese mythology, is in love with the Ox Herder, whom she can meet only once a year on the seventh day of the seventh month by crossing over the Milky Way. A pun is implied in yobaiboshi (shooting star), centering on the word yobai , which originates in the verb yobu (to call) but later came to mean secret visits to women at night and, eventually, a marriage proposal ( Kogo jiten , p. 1354). It is said that male and female pheasants ( yamadori ) stay together during the day but sleep apart at night, each on the different side of a hill ( Kogo jiten , p. 1318); from this, the word yamadori also means sleeping alone ( Kokugo daijiten , p. 2384). As for the significance of "autumn dear," it is well known that the bucks cry out to attract the does during their autumn mating season. And mandarin ducks have long been used to symbolize conjugal love because they remain mated for life.

38. Baba Mitsuko, " Ryojin hisho 'oi' ko—so no ichi," Chusei bungaku ronso 1 (1976): 69-71.

39. Kojima, Konoshita, and Satake, Man'yoshu 2:365 (no. 1634).

40. In Wakan roeishu , the topic even became an independent section (see nos. 345-51, NKBT 73:135-36). The Noh play "Kinuta," attributed to Zeami, also elaborates on this theme of a woman's death after a long period of longing for her absent husband; see Yokomichi and Omote, Yokyokushu 1:331-39.

41. See Ogihara and Konosu, eds., Kojiki, jodaikayo , pp. 129-30.

42. Saigo, Ryojin hisho , p. 101.

43. Hakata may refer to the Hakata Shrine in Izumi City, Osaka-Fu; see NKBT 73:525.

44. Nihon Geinoshi Kenkyukai, ed., Nihon geninoshi 2:35, 48.

45. Konishi, Ryojin hisho ko , p. 462.

46. Precisely what hoya dye was we no longer know, but it may have been a kind of indigo blue dye made with sap squeezed from parasitic plants; see NKBZ 25:314. The colors listed are those of silk or leather cords that were used to sew the pieces of metal or leather together to make a suit of armor.

47. Watanabe, Ryojin hisho , p. 129.

48. Shirai and Toki, eds., Jinja jiten , p. 91.

49.Ibid., p. 98.

50. Ibid., p. 191.

51. Ibid., p. 174.

52. Ibid., pp. 19-20.

48. Shirai and Toki, eds., Jinja jiten , p. 91.

49.Ibid., p. 98.

50. Ibid., p. 191.

51. Ibid., p. 174.

52. Ibid., pp. 19-20.

48. Shirai and Toki, eds., Jinja jiten , p. 91.

49.Ibid., p. 98.

50. Ibid., p. 191.

51. Ibid., p. 174.

52. Ibid., pp. 19-20.

48. Shirai and Toki, eds., Jinja jiten , p. 91.

49.Ibid., p. 98.

50. Ibid., p. 191.

51. Ibid., p. 174.

52. Ibid., pp. 19-20.

48. Shirai and Toki, eds., Jinja jiten , p. 91.

49.Ibid., p. 98.

50. Ibid., p. 191.

51. Ibid., p. 174.

52. Ibid., pp. 19-20.

53. NKBZ 25:263.

54. Shirai and Toki, eds., Jinja jiten , p. 13.

55.Ibid., p. 218.

56. Ibid., p. 117.

57. Ibid., p. 297.

58. Ibid., p. 38.

54. Shirai and Toki, eds., Jinja jiten , p. 13.

55.Ibid., p. 218.

56. Ibid., p. 117.

57. Ibid., p. 297.

58. Ibid., p. 38.

54. Shirai and Toki, eds., Jinja jiten , p. 13.

55.Ibid., p. 218.

56. Ibid., p. 117.

57. Ibid., p. 297.

58. Ibid., p. 38.

54. Shirai and Toki, eds., Jinja jiten , p. 13.

55.Ibid., p. 218.

56. Ibid., p. 117.

57. Ibid., p. 297.

58. Ibid., p. 38.

54. Shirai and Toki, eds., Jinja jiten , p. 13.

55.Ibid., p. 218.

56. Ibid., p. 117.

57. Ibid., p. 297.

58. Ibid., p. 38.

59. See Shinto daijiten 1:167.

60. Shirai and Toki, eds., Jinja jiten , pp. 187, 296.

61. The nickname Hachiman Taro is reportedly based on two legends: one is that Yoshiie was conceived soon after his father, Yoriyoshi (988-1075), had a dream in which the warrior god Hachiman gave him a sword; the other is that Yoshiie's coming-of-age ceremony when he turned seven was performed at the Iwashimizu Hachiman Shrine. See Nihon rekishi daijiten , 2d ed., vol. 9 (Kawade Shobo, 1969), p. 78.

62. Yoshiie's valor was praised in a story stating that even thieves were scared away or surrendered simply upon hearing his name; see NKBZ 25:316.

63. See chapter 1 for details on the Hogen Disturbance.

64. Sutoku was at first placed in Mount Matsuyama in Sanuki and then was moved to Naoshima Island.

65. The "soldier" ( hyoji ) here refers specifically to those charged with guarding the capital.

66. The caps or headgear ( eboshi ) worn by men in the earlier Heian period were made of cloth, and the aristocrats used a soft lacquer coating on them. Toward the end of the Heian period, however, it became fashionable to stiffen them with thick lacquer varnish. ( Kokugo daijiten, p . 294). Here, no refers to a unit for measuring the width of cloth, one no being about twelve inches. Formerly, outer trousers ( sashinuki ), worn over the under trousers ( shita no hakama ), had required six or eight no of cloth; one made with only four no , therefore, is a tighter garment with narrower breeches, better suited to action and movement. See NKBZ 25:296.

67. This new fashion is attributed to Emperor Toba and his favorite retainer, Minamoto Arihito (1103-47), who was particularly interested in matters of costume and manners. See Heiancho fukushoku hyakka jiten (Kodansha, 1975), p. 370.

68. Watanabe, Ryojin hisho , p. 141.

69. Ibid., p. 143.

68. Watanabe, Ryojin hisho , p. 141.

69. Ibid., p. 143.

70. NKBZ 25:297.

71. Taianji and Todaiji were two of the seven leading temples in Nara.

72. Enoki, Ryojin hisho , pp. 153, 201.

73. A middle general is the second-ranking officer in the headquarters of the Inner Palace Guards (Konoe-fu) charged with protecting the imperial palace. Usa Shrine refers to the Usa Hachiman Shrine, located in Oita Prefecture, Kyushu. The influential position of the head priest was hereditarily assumed by members of the Nakatomi and, later, Fujiwara families. See Anzu, Shinto jiten , p. 482. A speed sloop had many oars on both sides of the gunwale and was used for urgent business transactions; it is known that the priests of Usa Shrine came all the way to the capital through the Inland Sea on board these fast boats. See Shida, Ryojin hisho hyokai , p. 173; Saigo, Ryojin hisho , p. 67.

74. See Man'yoshu , poem no. 3827; in Ryojin hisho , nos. 17, 365, 366, 367, 437, and 442 are related to gamblers. For other works dealing with gamblers, see a saibara song titled "Ozeri" (Large Parsley), no. 13, in NKBZ 25:132-33; Fujiwara Akihira, Shinsarugakuki (ca. 1052), annot. Kawaguchi Hisao (Heibonsha, 1983), pp. 62-69; and a soka titled "Sugoroku" (Backgammon) in Enkyokusho , in Takano, ed., Nihon kayo shusei 5: 79-80.

75. Such action was taken in 1114, during the reign of Emperor Toba; see Watanabe, Ryojin hisho , p. 121.

76. The Nishi no Miya Shrine may be the one in the Hirota Shrine complex; see song no. 249.

77. Just what hyo dice are remains unclear. The shisosai (four-three dice) refers to the spots that appear when a pair of dice is thrown. See NKBZ 25: 200-220.

78. In an entry for the eighth month of 1019 in Shoyuki (Record from Little Right), Fujiwara Sanesuke (957-1046) records a street brawl in the western part of the capital that involved priest-gamblers; see NKBT 73:534. The aforementioned Kamakura-period soka "Sugoroku" shows how gambling penetrated into temples, catching priests in a vicious cycle of gam-bling and debt. See Takano, ed., Nihon kayo shusei 5:80.

79. Shida, in NKBT 73:534; Enoki, Ryojin hisho , p. 181.

80. Enoki, Ryojin hisho , p. 181.

81. A similar family is depicted in Fujiwara Akihira's Shinsarugakuki , where the household headed by Uemon no Jo includes gamblers, sumo wrestlers a priest, and courtesans.

82. Saigo, Ryojin hisho , p. 78.

83. Ibid., pp. 72-73.

84. Ibid., pp. 87-88.

82. Saigo, Ryojin hisho , p. 78.

83. Ibid., pp. 72-73.

84. Ibid., pp. 87-88.

82. Saigo, Ryojin hisho , p. 78.

83. Ibid., pp. 72-73.

84. Ibid., pp. 87-88.

85. Salt and dragonflies were often linked in folk songs throughout Japan, though the reasons for the association are not clear; see NKBZ 25:315.

86. Toba refers to the Toba Palace built by Emperor Shirakawa to the south of the Heian capital, now known as Fushimi-ku in Kyoto. Jonanji Shrine was located next to the palace, and its festival was famous for the horse races that took place at the same time. Tsukurimichi Road is a thoroughfare that connected the Rajomon Gate in Yotsuzuka in the capital's southern sector with the area near the Toba Palace. See Shida, Ryojin hisho hyokai , pp. 200-201.

1. The Naikyobo was established at court as a counterpart to the Gagakuryo (Bureau of Music), which consisted of males only. The earliest reference to performances by members of the Naikyobo was 759. See Geinoshi Kenkyukai, ed., Nihon geinoshi 1: 250.

2. Ibid., p. 251.

1. The Naikyobo was established at court as a counterpart to the Gagakuryo (Bureau of Music), which consisted of males only. The earliest reference to performances by members of the Naikyobo was 759. See Geinoshi Kenkyukai, ed., Nihon geinoshi 1: 250.

2. Ibid., p. 251.