Wagering the Land
  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

 collapse section1  INTRODUCTION
 •Abatan, Buguias, April 15, 1986
 •The Transformation of Buguias Livelihood
 collapse sectionCommercialization and Local Change
 •Commercial Agriculture and Environmental Degradation
 •Commercialization and Redistributive Feasts
 •Theoretical Underpinnings
 •Field Methods
 •Identifying Buguias in the Ethnographic Landscape
 •Overview

 collapse sectionPART I  PREWAR BUGUIAS
 collapse section2  Food, Fuel, and Fiber:  Human Environmental Relations in Prewar Buguias
 •Introduction
 collapse sectionAgricultural Fields
 •Dry Fields: Uma and Puwal
 •Door-Yard Gardens
 •Pond Fields: Taro and Rice
 collapse sectionAnimal Husbandry
 •Houselot Animals: Hogs and Chickens
 •Pasture Animals: Cattle, Water Buffalo, and Horses
 •Pasture Management
 collapse sectionThe Harvest of Uncultivated Lands
 •Hunting, Fishing, and Insect Gathering
 •Wild Plant Foods
 •Non-Food Products
 collapse sectionVegetational Change and Agricultural Intensification
 •Vegetational Change: the Kowal Thesis
 •Vegetational Change in Buguias
 •Agricultural Intensification
 collapse section3  Social Relations:  Power and Labor
 •Introduction
 collapse sectionThe Commoners
 •Animal Sharing
 •Labor Organization and Gender
 collapse sectionThe Elite and their Servants
 •The Baknangs
 •Slaves, Servants, Itinerants, and Clients
 collapse sectionSocial Mobility
 •Class and Family
 •Inheritance and Downward Mobility
 •Upward Movement
 collapse sectionLand Tenure
 •Indigenous Tenure
 •The American Intervention
 •Land Tenure and Class
 collapse section4  Religion:  The Role of the Ancestors
 •Introduction
 collapse sectionGods and Spirits
 •The Buguias Pantheon
 •Spirits: Dangerous, Neutral, and Helpful
 •Spiritual Curing, Prevention of Harm, and Blessings
 •Religion and the Landscape
 collapse sectionPrestige Feasts in Prewar Buguias
 •The Wedding Ceremony
 •Graded Prestige Feasts: The Pedit
 •The Buguias Funeral
 •Other Rites
 collapse sectionStatus Display
 •Blanket Rank
 •Ritual Experts
 collapse sectionThe Ideology of Ritual Performance
 •The Luck of the Ancestors
 •Ritual and Power in Human Society
 •The Tong Tongan Jural System
 •Grounds for Belief
 •The Economics of Ritual Expenditure
 •Social Stratification and Religious Expense
 •Power and Religion Reconsidered
 collapse section5  Commercial and Political Relations
 •Introduction
 collapse sectionTrade Relations
 •Historical Background
 •Buguias Trade in the American Period
 collapse sectionThe Organization of Trade
 •Financial and Social Structures
 •Geographical Patterns
 collapse sectionLocal Specialization of Production
 •Ironwork
 •Copper
 •Other Local Specialties
 collapse sectionThe Prewar Vegetable Industry
 •Vegetables in Benguet
 •American Encouragement
 •Vegetables in Buguias
 collapse sectionImperial Power
 •The Spaniards
 •The American Regime
 •Education, Religion, and Economics
 •The Geography of Imperial Rule
 collapse sectionColonial Visions
 •The Future
 collapse sectionInterregnum:  The War
 •The Japanese Occupation
 •Hostilities
 •Social Consequences

 collapse sectionPART II  VITALITY AND VULNERABILITY:  FLUCTUATIONS IN THE POSTWAR ECONOMY, 1946–1986
 •Introduction
 collapse section6  The Establishment of Commercial Vegetable Agriculture
 •Introduction
 collapse sectionPostwar Adjustments
 •The Aftermath of War
 •The Rise of a New Economic System
 •The Mountain Trail Vegetable Hearth
 collapse sectionThe Ecology of Early Vegetable Production in Buguias
 •New Techniques
 •Vegetables in the Uma
 •Terraced Gardens
 •Farming and Ranching in Conflict
 collapse sectionContinuing Agricultural Development
 •Recession and Revival
 •The Agricultural Cooperatives
 collapse sectionCrops and Field Types
 •Seasonal Patterns
 •Soils and Topography
 •Vegetables
 •The Survival of Subsistence Cropping
 •The Agroecological Transition
 collapse sectionStrategies in Vegetable Farming
 •Crop Variability
 •Environmental (Mis)fortune
 •Insurance Strategies
 collapse sectionThe Spatial Reorganization of Exchange
 •The Displacement of Buguias Central
 •The Rise of the North
 •The Market in Buguias Central
 •Connections with the Global Economy
 collapse section7  The Sociology and Economics of Vegetable Production, 1946–1972
 •Introduction
 collapse sectionRestructured Social Relations
 •Class Stratification
 •Living Standards
 •Gender Relations
 collapse sectionCapital and Labor
 •Sources of Capital
 •Sharecropping
 •Wage and Cooperative Labor
 •Labor and Credit Elsewhere in Buguias Municipality
 collapse sectionThe Vegetable Trade
 •The Early Vegetable Traders
 •Bisna and Stafin Olsim
 •The Practice of Vegetable Trading
 •Agribusiness Reconsidered
 collapse section8  Economic and Ecological Crisis
 •Introduction
 collapse sectionBoom, Bust, and Readjustment
 •Boom
 •Bust
 •Readjustments
 •Transformation of the Vegetable Trade
 •The Precarious State of the Vegetable Industry
 collapse sectionDemography
 •Population Trends
 •Local Attitudes and Population Growth
 collapse sectionDeforestation
 •Pine and Oak Forests: 1930–1980
 •Recent Forestry Practices in Buguias
 •Development Plans: Social and Agroforestry
 collapse sectionWater Shortages, Erosion, and Biocides
 •Water Shortages
 •Erosion
 •Biocides, Human Health, and Faunal Destruction
 collapse sectionThe Vegetable Frontier
 •Geographical Patterns of Expansion
 •Continuing Road Development
 •Land Speculation
 collapse section9  Social Conflict and Political Struggle
 •Introduction
 collapse sectionLand Conflicts
 •Community and Private Lands
 •Land Conflicts in Buguias Central
 •Tax declarations and Conflict Settlement
 •The Rise of Youth Culture
 collapse sectionContemporary Politics
 •Benguet and the Philippine Government
 •Local Politics
 •Martial Law and Revolution
 •The CPA
 •The 1986 Election and Beyond
 collapse section10  Religion in Modern Buguias
 •Introduction
 collapse sectionThe "Buguias Paganism System"
 •Omens and Rites
 •Feasting and Social Stratification
 collapse sectionChristian Challenge and Pagan Response
 •The Spread of Christianity
 •Religious Rivalry: the Christian Position
 •Pagan Responses
 collapse sectionThe Geography of Religion
 •The Eastern Frontier
 •Buguias as a Center of Modern Paganism
 collapse sectionReligious Plurality in Present-Day Buguias
 •Religious Conflict
 •Recent Change and Compromise
 •Trends
 collapse section11  Conclusion:  Understanding Buguias's Aberrant Development
 •The Commercial History of Buguias
 •Geographical Patterns
 collapse sectionThe Ideology of Pagan Economics
 •Contention, Rhetoric, and Power
 •Max Weber and the Spirit of Capitalism
 collapse sectionRitual Economics and the Social Order
 •Prestige Feasts and Social Differentiation
 •Analyzing the Social Formation of Buguias
 •Materialism and Idealism
 collapse sectionRitual Survival, Ecological Devastation
 •Environmental Threats
 •Prospects

 collapse sectionNotes
 •1 INTRODUCTION
 •2 Food, Fuel, and Fiber: Human Environmental Relations in Prewar Buguias
 •3 Social Relations: Power and Labor
 •4 Religion: The Role of the Ancestors
 •5 Commercial and Political Relations
 •6 The Establishment of Commercial Vegetable Agriculture
 •8 Economic and Ecological Crisis
 •9 Social Conflict and Political Struggle
 •10 Religion in Modern Buguias
 •11 Conclusion: Understanding Buguias's Aberrant Development
  GLOSSARY
 collapse sectionBIBLIOGRAPHY
 •Archival Sources
 •Newspapers
 collapse sectionINDEX
 •A
 •B
 •C
 •D
 •E
 •F
 •G
 •H
 •I
 •J
 •K
 •L
 •M
 •N
 •O
 •P
 •R
 •S
 •T
 •U
 •V
 •W
 •Y
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