INDEX
A
Abatan, 1 , 15 , 90 , 141 -142, 205 , 227
ACCFA (Agricultural Credit and Cooperative Financing Administration), 128
Accounting, indigenous, 91
Agno River, 1 , 24 , 28 , 175 , 180
Agricultural chemicals, 2 , 122 , 130 , 135 , 143 -144, 164 , 169 , 172
Agricultural intensification, 38 , 41 -44, 172
Agriculture. See Animal husbandry; Subsistence cropping; Swidden; Vegetable cultivation
See also Rice beer
Alnus japonica , 179
American colonialists: administrative system, 15
encouragement of vegetable growing, 96
ethnographic conceptions, 12
failure to provide relief after war, 110
forestry policy, 174
impressions of Cordilleran peoples, 103 -104
interference with rituals, 100
political regime, 99 -101
public works, 102
racism, 103
and social stratification, 234
visions of future, 104 -105
Ancestor worship, 1 , 59 , 61 , 66 -67, 173
Ancestral lands, 196 -197
Ancestral spirits (amed ), 59
and control of luck, 3
communications with, 74
See also Prestige feast; Rituals
Andropogon annulatus , 32
Animal husbandry: damage during the war, 110
decline, 117
interference by American authorities, 100
and land tenure, 55
prewar patterns, 30 -31
and social relations, 46 -47
and trade, 85 -86
Animal sacrifice: changes in, 231
and Christianity, 221
and curing rituals, 60
and jury deliberations, 76
prewar patterns, 65 -67
See also Paganism; Prestige feast; Rituals
Antolin, Francisco, 83
Aquino, Benigno, 169
Aquino, Corazon, 211
Autonomy, Cordilleran, 210 -211
B
Bad-ayan, 108 , 141 -142, 155 , 159 , 188 , 227
Baguio, 1 , 3 , 79 , 88 , 96 , 138 , 142 -143, 154 , 189 , 229 , 244
Balweg, Conrado, 211
Banditry (the "busol problem"), 50 , 100
Banking. See Capital
Barrows, David, 95
Beets, 166
Bidens pilosa , 36
Blackburn, Don, 107 -108
Blaikie, Piers, 8
Blankets, ritual, 71 -72, 88 , 222
Bodley, John, 5
Bontoc: agricultural patterns, 43
animosity toward, 88
diet, 65
religion, 229
Boserup, Ester, 41
Brookfield, Harold, 8
Bulldozers, 4 , 183 , 192 , 214
C
Caballero, Evelyn, 260
Cabbage, 95 , 119 -120, 123 , 125 , 132 , 136 , 139 , 159 , 170 , 184
Cajanus cajanus , 24
Calvinism, 241
Cancian, Frank, 243
Capital: and agricultural cooperatives, 128
bank loans, 163
bank loans and class, 155
bank loans and delinquency, 165
cultural acceptance, 235
financing from vegetable traders, 168
postwar sources, 151 -152
and religious expectations, 207 , 219 , 238
shortages in frontier zones, 186
sources during early vegetable boom, 119
Carrots, 123 , 126 , 131 , 132 , 138 , 189
Catholicism, 219 -220
and early vegetable culture, 96
conflicts with Paganism, 229
Central Cordilleran Forest Reserve, 56
Cervantes, 88
Chinese: agricultural techniques, 122
and Paganism, 232
in vegetable industry, 98 , 121 , 127 -128, 136 , 147 , 159 , 163 , 235
"Chrispas" (Christian-Pagans), 221 , 239
Christianity: and class position, 218 , 220 , 240
compromises with Paganism, 230
and gender, 220
geographic patterns, 220
judgments against Paganism, 221 -222, 240
See also Catholicism; Missionaries; Protestant churches; Religion
Clarke, William, 149
Class. See Commoners
Elite class; Social mobility; Social stratification
Cloud forest (kalasan ), 30 , 38 , 84 , 92 , 172 , 175 , 178 , 191 -192, 236
Commercialization: and changes in living standards, 148 -149, 169
and environmental degradation, 4 , 134 -135, 248
historical background, 88 -89, 233 -235
individualizing tendencies, 233
lure of, 170
and predicted cultural ruin, 105
and redistributive feasting, 5
and social adjustments, 135
Commoners, 46 -49
acceptance of elite domination, 80
Cooperatives, agricultural, 127 -129, 156
Corbridge, Stuart, 8
Corruption, military, 162 , 177
Corvee duty, 49
CPA (Cordilleran People's Alliance), 209 -210
Craft specialization, 49 , 92 -95
"Crony capitalism," 164
Cultural ecology, 44
Cultural geography, 7
D
Dangwa Bus Company, 97 , 156 , 223
Davis, William, 151 -152
Debt: and animal husbandry, 47
and intervillage relations, 92
and ritual, 152
as "social glue," 204
and social stratification, 53 , 78 -79, 243
in vegetable trade, 158
Deforestation, 123 , 174 -176, 183
and indigenous mining, 94
Demography. See Population
Development Bank of the Philippines, 165
Divorce, 70
Door-yard gardens, 27 -28, 134
E
Eisenstadt, S. N., 241
Elite class (baknang class): and agribusiness, 159 -160
change in living standards, postwar, 148
control of jural system, 76
and development of vegetable frontier, 188
and downward mobility, 157
early experimentation with vegetables, 97
financial power, 78 -79
gradations within, 49 -50, 239 -240
relations with colonial regime, 56 -57
obligation to lend, 79
participation in vegetable boom, 122
position of children, 203
practice of usury, 78
role in prewar trade, 91
as "social benefactors," 162
social organization, prewar, 49 -51
Energy crisis, 163
Environmental degradation, 5 , 135 , 161 , 174 -186, 194 , 233 , 247
See also Agricultural chemicals; Deforestation; Erosion, Water shortages; Wildlife destruction
Erosion, 124 -125, 179 , 182 -184, 190 , 196
See also Landslides
Ethnographic classification, 10 -15
Eupatorium adenophorum , 26 , 33 , 125
F
FACOMA (Farmers Cooperative Marketing Association), 127 -129, 156
Family structure: and labor organization, 125 , 150
and population growth, 172 -173
and sharecropping, 152
Fatalism, 242
Fischer, Michael, 9
Fishing, 35
Forestry: conflicts with land tenure, 195 -196
postwar patterns, 174 -177
prewar patterns, 37 -38
social (agro-forestry), 178
See also Deforestation
Forests, communal, 195
Frontier, vegetable economy, 186 -193
and religion, 226
Fruit cultivation, 27 , 162 , 179 , 248
Funerals: changes in, 231
and luck, 74
prewar patterns, 68 -70
reburials, 69
and religious contention, 230
G
Galvey, Guillermo, 2
Gender relations: among commoners, prewar, 47 -48
changes in postwar period, 146 , 149 -150
in elite class, prewar, 49 -50
in marketing, 141
and population growth, 174
and religion, 220
symbolic representations, 69
Generational politics, 210
Gods (of Buguias), 60
anger over deforestation, 183
representations of, 95
Gold mining: American exploitation, 101
changes during war, 107
indigenous patterns, 83 , 87 , 234
postwar decline, 118 -119
H
Haight, Guy, 96
Health and agricultural chemicals, 184
I
Ibaloi: and commercialization, 235 -237
as ethnographic category, 12
pastoralism among, 41
religion, 225 , 229 , 236 -237
vegetable culture, 96
Idealism, 245 -246
Ifugao: agricultural patterns, 43
diet, 65
and NPA, 208
position of women among, 150
prewar trade patterns, 85 , 87
tourism, 224
Ifugao province: and Cordilleran autonomy, 211
expansion of vegetable growing and deforestation, 178
market linkages, 141
vegetation, 40
Ilocano: livestock trade, 140
as market vendors, 140 -141
in NPA, 208
and Paganism, 232
as teachers and officials, 101
trade with Buguias, 87 -88
Imperata cylindrica , 25 -26, 32
Inflation, 119 -120, 165 , 169
Inheritance, 53
Insecticides. See Agricultural chemicals
Irrigation, 166 -167, 172 , 180 -181, 248
See also Water shortages
J
Japanese: conquest by, 107 -111
and vegetable industry, 96 , 121
Jural system (tong tongan ), 75 -76
and class, 218
and debt, 152
and forestry, 178
and land conflicts, 199 -201
litigation practices within, 75
trial by ordeal, 75
water disputes, 181
K
Kabayan, 85 , 185 , 188 , 199 , 225
Kalanguya (Kallahan): avoidance of imperial rule 102
as ethnographic category, 12
and prewar trade, 85
ritual practices, 72
in vegetable economy, 189
Kapangan, 2
Kibungan, 225
Kikuyu grass, 31
Kowal, Norman, 38 -40
L
Labor exchange (ogbo ), 48 , 146 , 154
Labor organization: contractual patterns, 154
and gender, prewar, 47 -48
See also Elite class; Labor exchange; Migrant workers; Social stratification; Wage labor
Land dispossession, 205
"Land pirates," 198
Land speculation, 191 -192
Land tenure: American imposition, 56 -57
and class, prewar, 57 -58
conflicts over, 195 -196, 198 -200
and Philippine courts, 198
Landscape of Buguias: human transformation, 1 -2, 22 , 32 , 38 -41
and religion, 63 -64
See also Erosion
La Union, 91
Law, indigenous. See Jural system
"Legal entrepreneurship," 197
Lo-o, 15 , 85 , 91 , 109 , 122 , 138 , 141 -142, 155 , 177 , 179 , 185 , 188 , 205
Luck: beliefs regarding ancestral control, 67 , 75 -76, 138
and omens, 214
See also Sangbo
M
Magat Valley, 83
Manila, vegetable market in, 128 , 140 , 159
Mankayan, 93 , 101 , 107 , 142
Marcos, Ferdinand, 164 , 175 , 196 , 208
Marcus, George, 9
Marijuana, 209
Market structure: early postwar, 140 -143
later postwar developments, 159 , 168 -169
prewar 92
seasonality, 136
See also Periodic markets; Trade
Marriage, 53 -54, 65 , 78 , 204
Materialism, 245 -246
Migrant workers, 37 , 153 -154, 188
"Minorities, national," 205
Miscanthus sinensis , 26 , 33 , 36 -37, 40
See also Catholicism; Protestant churches
Modernization theory, 6
Money, worship of, 222
Moral economy, 6
Mortgage (salda ), 151
Mount Data: national park, 128 , 178
vegetable district, 138 , 156 , 180
Mountain Province Development Authority, 161 , 183
Mountain Trail vegetable district: effects of typhoons on, 137
erosion, 183
expansion of vegetable cultivation from, 186
labor relations, 155
land titling, 197
and social stratification, 147 -148
variability in precipitation, 138
as vegetable hearth, 120
water shortages, 180
Mount Pulog, 38
Multinational corporations, 143 -144, 235 , 247
Municipal governments, 100
N
New People's Army (NPA), 168 , 176 , 186 , 190 , 208 , 248
Nonritual feasts (saliw ), 78 , 90
Northern Kankana-ey: as ethnographic category, 12
as itinerant workers, 51
as marketers, 140
rice cultivation, 28
trade with Buguias, 87 -88, 94
O
Oleoresin, 176
OMACC (Office of Muslim Affairs and Cultural Communities), 199 , 205
See also Luck; Sangbo
P
Paganism; acknowledgment of Christian prayer by, 231
Buguias as modern center of, 2 , 227 -228, 237
contempt for outward trappings of wealth, 222 -223
and contraception, 174
criticism of Christianity, 240
future of, 232
grounds for belief, 76 -77
ideology and economics, 7 , 73 , 213 -219, 238 -239, 241
particularism, 223
and redistribution, 78
and theories of disease, 61
variations within, 239 -240
See also Ancestor worship; Religion; Rituals
Pagan priest (mambunung ), 60 -62, 229
Pangasinan, 91
Pasture management, 31 -34
See also Animal husbandry
Peasantry. See Social formation
Periodic markets: and decline of Buguias Central, 140
new development, 189
and road development, 143
Pesticides. See Agricultural chemicals
Polanyi, Karl, 9
Political geography, 14 -15
and rivalries within Buguias, 206
and road construction, 191
and social conflict, 194
Politics: campaigns and social class, 207
local organization, 205 -207
and 1986 election, 211
position of women, 150
See also Political geography; NPA; Social conflict
Population: growth trends, 171 -172
local attitudes toward growth, 172 -173
prewar patterns, 42 -43
Potatoes, 95 , 119 , 126 -127, 132
Prestige feast, graded (Pedit ), 65 -66,
See also Paganism; Rituals
Protestant churches, 219 -220, 231
R
Recession, economic: of the 1940s, 126
Recreation, 203
Redistribution and social cohesion, 5 , 207 , 215 , 238
Religion: changes in practices, 216
conflicts between Pagans and Christians, 229 -230
geographical patterns, 224 -227, 235 -238
and political conflict, 206 -207, 211 -212
and social stratification, 207 , 215 -219
See also Catholicism; Paganism; Protestantism; Ritual expenditure; Rituals
geographical distribution and trade, 85
decline of cultivation, 124
Rice beer, 1 , 28 , 36 , 64 , 66 , 123
Risk taking, 131 , 136 , 138 , 239
Ritual adviser (mankotom ), 72 , 76 , 227 , 229 , 237
Ritual expenditure: and Christianity, 221
and control of luck, 215
and education, 224
and economics, 77 -78, 213 -219, 238 -244
and legitimation of wealth, 218
accusations of wrongdoing leveled against, 222
See also Pagan priest; Ritual adviser; Spirit medium
"Ritual regulation," 246
Rituals: curing and blessing, 62
dancing, 66
divorce, 70
fertility, 70
trances in, 67
sanctity of, 222
See also Paganism; Prestige feast
Roads: construction, 126
contracting, 157
dendritic patterns, 143
early development, 97
and the economic decline of Buguias, 118
expansion and market change, 141
and expansion of the vegetable frontier, 178 , 189 -190
and the NPA, 208
and political conflict, 206
Rosaldo, Renato, 10
Ruppert, David, 141
Russell, Susan, 152 , 157 , 167 , 216
S
Sangbo (sign of good luck), 63 , 76 , 214 , 239
See also Luck; Omens
Scott, James, 6
Seasonality, climatic, 24 -25, 129 , 130 , 132 , 136
and labor organization, 48
Servant class, 51
Shanin, Teodor, 243
Social conflict, 75 , 115 , 194 , 202 -204
Social formation, debate on, 244 -245
Social mobility: and ancestral favor, 81
downfall of elite couples, 157
Ibaloi and Southern Kankana-ey patterns compared, 237
and marriage patterns, 52
prewar patterns, 52 -54
and ritual investments, 157 , 243
Social stratification: American understanding, 104
changes during postwar period, 147 -148
and landscape change, 54
and local politics, 207
prewar patterns, 45 -55
and religious geography, 236 -237
and religious practices, 59 , 78
and ritual feasting, 215 -219, 240 , 243
and road development, 190
within spirit world, 80 -81
Solanum nigrum , 36
Spanish colonial regime, 98 -99
ethnographic categorizations, 12
impressions of Cordilleran peoples, 103
political geographical organization, 13
and social stratification, 234
tribute requirements, 99
Spirit medium (mansib-ok ), 62 , 215 , 227
Spirits, dangerous (anitos ), 60
See also Rituals
"Spiritual empiricism," 207 , 223 -224, 238
Squash, 166
Status display: and heirlooms, 53
prewar patterns, 70 -71
Subsistence cropping: "affluence" in, 148
contrasted with commercial agriculture, 169 -170
dismal memories of 170
impossibility of return to, 248
postwar decline, 115
prewar patterns, 22 -38
sectoral division, 22
spatial patterns, 2
sustainability, 44
Suyoc, 80 , 87 , 91 , 93 , 101 , 118 , 139
Sweet potatoes, 21 , 23 , 27 , 31 , 36 , 42 , 85 , 94 , 123 , 209
Swidden agriculture, 23 -27
and forestry, 176
transition to vegetable cultivation, 123
Syncretic movements, 226
T
Tagalog merchants, 144 , 159 , 168
Taro, 28
Tax declarations: establishment, 56 -57, 126 , 191
and land conflicts, 200 -201 Terraces: bench terracing, 183
destruction during war, 101
as investments, 248
pond-field, 28 -29
as private property, 55 -56
use in vegetable cultivation, 123 -124
Themeda triandra , 26 , 32 , 254
Tinoc, 83 , 91 , 118 , 189 , 204 , 209
Topography: description of, 21 -22
and erosion, 182
and trade, 83 -84
Toponyms, 65
Toraja, 243
Toulmin, Stephen, 245
Trade: "Buy and sell," 85 , 156
of copperware, 94 -95
historical background, 82 -83
and physical geography, 83 , 84
postwar system, 149 -150
role in fostering commercial attitudes, 234
and social relations, 83 -88, 234 -235
transformation of animal trade, 140
See also Vegetable trade
Transportation. See Roads; Vegetable trade; Vehicles
Tuba, 197
Typhoons, 36 , 131 , 135 , 137 , 182
U
United States military: and road construction, 208
role in early vegetable boom, 120
as vegetable market, 143
See also American colonialists
V
Vegetable cultivation: agricultural techniques, 122 -124
conflicts with pastoralism, 124 -126
connections with global economy, 143 -144
cro protation, 133 -134
expansion, 186 -190
exploitation of microhabitats, 117 , 129
geograhical patterns, 122 , 166
historical precedents, 85 -89
innovations, 161
insurance strategies, 139
introduction of new crops, 126 , 166
postwar boom, 119
scale, 160
seed procurement, 144
serial plantings, 139
soil, 130 -131
strategies, 117
technological change, 166 , 181
varieties, 131 -134
Vegetable trade, 158 -159
and agribusiness, 159 -160
development, 155 -157
transformations, 167 -169
Vegetation change, 38 -41
See also Landscape of Buguias
Vehicles, 140 , 155 -156, 158 , 168 , 189
Vigna sinensis , 24
Volckmann, R. W., 107
W
Wage labor: change in wage structure, 147
in prewar trade, 89
replacement of cooperative exchange, 154
traditional form (dangas ), 48 -49, 51 , 146 , 154
Watershed protection, 196
Water shortages, 167 , 180 -182, 193 , 227
Water spirits (timungao ), 61 , 64 , 80
Watts, Michael, 4
Weber, Max, 240 -242
Wedding ceremony, 65
Wild foods, 36
Wildlife destruction, 185 -186
World War II, 107 -111
guerilla fighting, 108
social and ecological consequences, 109 -111
Y
Yamashita, Tomoyuki, 108 -109
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