The Autobiography of Fray Anselmo Turmeda, ‘Abd Allāh al-Turjumān

(1352–1432?)

Introduction

Conversion narratives constitute a significant subcategory of autobiographical writing in both the Arabo-Islamic and European traditions. Among Arabic texts we find conversions to Islam from Christianity (Turmeda), from Judaism (Samaw’al al-Maghribī), from a less committed sense of Islam to a more pious lifestyle (al-Tirmidhī), and from more traditionalist versions of Islam to Islamic mysticism via rational study (al-Ghazālī) or through visionary experience (al-Simnānī). Many of these texts are attached to polemical works that reaffirm in different rhetorical terms the transformation undergone by the author in the conversion narrative itself. Conversion autobiographies have a very intimate engagement both with convincing the reader that the story told is true and with persuading the reader that the path taken is the path of truth.

The autobiography of Fray Anselmo Turmeda/‘Abd Allāh al-Turjumān (lit. ‘Abd Allāh “the Interpreter”) constitutes the first chapter in a work that is aimed at refuting Christianity's claim to be the true faith and convincing other Christians to convert to Islam as did the author in approximately 1387. A native of Mallorca, ‘Abd Allāh recounts a straightforward chronological narrative of his early life and religious studies. Perhaps most striking are his recollections of the unusual characteristics of the cities in which he lived and studied. Of Mallorca, he notes the prodigious local production of olives and figs; concerning Lérida, Spain, he tells of the gold dust found in the nearby river and of how the inhabitants preserved fruits and vegetables by drying them so they could be stored through the winter; of Bologna, Italy, he tells us about the municipal system for overseeing the quality of local brick production. Why are these curious details in his story at all? In part, they may be substantiating evidence that he did indeed live in these regions, evidence that would lend credence to his narrative of sincere conversion to Islam; but they also reflect a world of trading networks in a time when the popularity of travel literature was experiencing dramatic growth in Islamic domains as well as in Europe. ‘Abd Allāh al-Turjumān lived within a century of both the most famous western traveler, Marco Polo (1254–1323), and the most renowned Muslim traveler, Ibn Baṭṭūṭa (1304–77), of the late Middle Ages.

Most fascinating, however, is his forthright account of confusion over the figure of the Paraclete in the New Testament, at best an ambiguous figure in Christian thought. This is the figure whom Jesus promises God will send after him (John 16:07) to teach the world all things (14:26), who will be another counselor and testify about Jesus (15:26), but whom the world will not accept (14:16–17). When the young priest Anselmo Turmeda in his confusion turns to his teacher and mentor, the older priest confesses surprisingly that the Paraclete is none other than the Prophet Muhammad and advises his young student to flee to Muslim lands and save his soul! This ‘Abd Allāh does, and at the age of thirty-five he stands before the sultan of Tunis and a crowd of Christian merchants and gives public witness that Islam is the True Faith and that Muhammad is God's Messenger. We know little of ‘Abd Allāh's later life, but his autobiography leaves him happily married, the father of a young son, and enjoying the personal favor and blessing of the sultan.

Bibliography

‘Abd Allāh al-Turjumān. Tuḥfat al-adīb fī al-radd ‘alā ahl al-ṣalīb. Ed. Maḥmūd ‘Alī Ḥamāya. Cairo: Dār al-Thaqāfa li-l- Ṭibā‘a wa-l-Nashr, 1983. 27–39.

Calvet, Agustín. Fray Anselmo Turmeda: Heterodoxo español (1352–1423–32?). Barcelona: Casa Editorial Estudio, 1914.

de Epalza, Miguel. Fray Anselm Turmeda(‘Abdallah al-Taryuman) y su polémica islámo-cristiana: Edición, traducción y estudio de la Tuhfa. 2d ed. Madrid: Hiperion, 1994.

———. “Nuevas aportaciones a la biografía de Fray Anselmo Turmeda (Abdallah al-Tarchumān).” Analecta Sacra Tarraconensia: Revista deCiencias Histórico-Eclesiásticas 38 (1965): 87–158.

Samsó, Julio. “Turmediana: I. Trasfondo cultural islámico en la obra catalana de Anselmo Turmeda; II. En torno a la “Tuḥfa” y al Libre de bons amonestaments.” Boletín de la Real Academia de Buenas Letras de Barcelona 34 (1971–72): 51–85.

A Unique Find for the Intelligent Mind
[Tuhfat al-adīb, pp. 27–39]

A Treatise of Riposte to the People of the Cross

Chapter One

Know then—may God have mercy on you—that I am originally from the city of Mallorca (may God Almighty return her to Islam!), a large city on the coast that lies in a small valley between two mountains. It is a city of commerce with two harbors where large ships dock carrying splendid merchandise. The city is known by the name of the island, Mallorca, and its most important agricultural products are olives and figs. In a good year, more than twenty thousand barrels of olive oil are shipped from there to the cities of Cairo and Alexandria. In addition, the island of Mallorca has more than one hundred twenty well-populated walled towns, and many springs of water which emerge in all directions and flow to the sea. My father was considered one of the important people of the city of Mallorca. I was his only son, so when I reached six years of age he sent me to a priest who became my teacher and with whom I studied the Gospels until, in the space of two years, I had memorized more than half of them. I then began a six-year course of study in the language of the Gospels and the science of Logic.

I then left my homeland of Mallorca for the city of Lérida [on the mainland] in the land of Catalonia, the center of learning for Christians in that region, which has a large valley that cuts through it. There I saw gold dust mixed with the valley's sands, but since it is well known among the people of that region that the cost of extracting it is not matched by the price it brings, it is simply ignored. In this city there is a great abundance of fruit, and I have seen the peasants there split peaches, as well as squash and carrots, into quarters and place them in the sun [to dry]; during the winter, whenever they wish to eat these, they place them in water overnight and then cook them as if they were fresh. Christian students seeking knowledge gather in this city and number one thousand or even one thousand five hundred, and no one is in charge of them other than the priest with whom they are studying. The most common plant in its hinterlands is saffron. I studied the natural sciences and astrology there for six years. Then I was charged with teaching the Gospels and the language of the Gospels for four years.

I later traveled to the city of Bologna in the land of Lombardy, a very large city whose buildings are of strong red baked brick due to the lack of stone quarries in the region. Each master brickmaker has a stamp with which all of his bricks are imprinted and there is a supervisor who oversees the quality of the clay in the bricks and of the baking. If any should crack or crumble, the brickmaker is forced to pay the cost and is punished with a beating. This city is known as a city of learning among all the people of that region, and each year more than a thousand men gather there seeking knowledge. They wear nothing but a simple wrap which is the vestment of God [ṣibāgh Allāh]; even if a student is a king [sulṭān] or the son of a king, they all wear nothing but this, so the students are easily distinguishable from all other [residents of the city]. And no one is in charge of them but the priest with whom they are studying. I lived in that city [for quite a while].

There is a church there with an old priest who was of very high rank, by the name of Nicola Martello. His status among them in knowledge, observance, and asceticism was very high. He was peerless in these characteristics in his time among all the people of Christendom. Questions, particularly those concerning religion, would be brought to him from distant regions from kings and others, accompanied by great gifts which was the point of the matter for they wished to acquire his blessings by doing this. When their gifts were accepted, they deemed themselves greatly honored. With this priest I studied the principles [uṣūl] and the details [aḥkām] of the Christian religion. I grew closer and closer to him by serving him and taking care of many of his errands until he eventually made me the closest of his retinue, to the point that I ended up being given the keys to his house and his storerooms. I had access to everything with the sole exception of the key to a small room within his house where he would retire by himself that was apparently his storeroom for all the wealth that had been given to him, but God only knows.

I studied with him there and served him, as I have recounted above, for ten years. Then one day he unexpectedly took ill and did not attend his seminar. The students of his class waited for him and passed the time discussing various problems of knowledge. Eventually, their discussion turned to the words of God Almighty as expressed by the Prophet Jesus (upon whom be peace!): “There will come after me a prophet whose name shall be the Paraclete [Bāraqlīṭ: cf. John 14:15, 26; 15:26; 16:7–15],” and they began to discuss the identity of this prophet: Which was he among the Prophets? Each one spoke according to his own knowledge and understanding. Their discussion was lengthy and they debated a great deal, but they left without having reached any conclusion regarding this matter.

I went to the residence of the teacher of the aforementioned class, and he asked me, “What studying did you do today while I was absent?” So I told him of the disagreement among the students concerning the identity of the Paraclete. I reported that so-and-so had answered thus, and so-and-so had answered in this manner, and thus I narrated to him all of their answers. Then he asked me, “And how did you answer?” “I responded with the answer given by such-and-such a religious scholar in his exegesis of the Gospels.” He said to me, “Well, that was a good try and you did get close; but so-and-so is mistaken and so-and-so almost got it right, but the truth is not any of these, because the explanation of this holy name is known only by scholars of extraordinary learning, and as of yet, you [students] have achieved only a small amount of knowledge.” So I rushed forward to kiss his feet and said to him, “Master, you know that I have come to you from a far-off land and have served you now for ten years. During this time I have received from you an amount of knowledge which I cannot reckon, but could you find it possible, out of your great beneficence, to supplement this with knowledge of this holy name?” The priest then began to weep and said to me, “My son, God knows that you are very dear to me because of your service and devotion to me. Knowledge of this holy name is indeed a great benefit, but I fear that if this knowledge were revealed to you that the Christian masses would kill you immediately.” I said to him, “Master, by God Almighty, by the Truth of the Gospels and He Who brought them, I shall never speak of anything you confide to me in secret except at your command!”

Then he said to me, “My son, when you first came to me I asked you about your country: whether it was close to the Muslims and whether your countries raid each other, in order to determine what aversion you might have for Islam. Know, then, my son, that the Paraclete is one of the names of our Prophet Muhammad (may God bless and preserve him!), to whom was revealed the Fourth Book which is mentioned by Daniel (upon whom be peace!) who says that this book shall be revealed, its religion shall be the True Religion, and its followers the True Community [lit. “white community,” al-milla al-bayḍā’, Dan. 12:10] mentioned in the Gospels.” I responded, “But, Master, what then do you say of the religion of the Christians?” He replied, “My son, if the Christians had persisted in the original religion of Jesus, they would indeed belong to the religion of God, for the religion of Jesus and all of the Prophets is that of God.”

“But what then is one to do in this matter?” I asked. He said, “My son, enter into the religion of Islam!” I asked, “Does whoever enter Islam achieve salvation?” He responded, “Yes, he is saved in this world and in the Hereafter.” I said to him, “Master, an intelligent man chooses for himself the very best of what he knows, so if you know that the religion of Islam is superior, what then keeps you from it?” He said, “My son, God Almighty only revealed to me the truth of what I have disclosed to you about the superiority of Islam and the holiness of the Prophet of Islam in my old age and after the decrepitude of my body—(There is, however, no excuse for him, for the proof of God is clear to all!)—but if God had guided me to this while I was still your age, I would have left everything and entered the True Religion. Love of the material world is at the heart of all sins. You can see my status among the Christians, the dignity I am accorded, the wealth, the honor, and my reputation in this world. If I were to demonstrate any leanings toward the religion of Islam, the masses would kill me at the earliest possible opportunity. Even if I were able to save myself from them and make my way to the Muslims and say to them, `I have come to you to become a Muslim,' they would say to me, `You have done yourself a great benefit by entering into the True Religion, but you do not bestow upon us any favor with your entrance into a religion by which you have saved yourself from the punishment of God.' I would remain among them a poor old man, ninety years of age, where I don't understand their language and they do not know my worth, and I would end up dying of starvation. So I remain, thank God, of the religion of Jesus and of Him who brought it. God knows this of me.”

So I said to him, “Master, are you indicating to me that I should go to the lands of the Muslims and enter into their religion?” He responded, “If you are intelligent and seek salvation, then rush to do this, thereby gaining for yourself both this world and the next! But, my son, this is a matter which no one is here to witness and which you must conceal to the utmost of your ability, for if any of it were to become known, the masses would kill you instantly, and I would not be able to help you. Nor would it help you to trace this back to me, for I would deny it, and my word about you would be believed, but your statements against me would not be believed. I am innocent of your blood should you utter a word of this.”

So I said to him, “Master, I hope to God that I would never even imagine doing such a thing!” I therefore pledged to him [my secrecy] as he desired. Then I began to make provisions for the journey. I said farewell to him and he asked God to protect me and gave me fifty gold dinars. I traveled by sea, heading for my homeland, the city of Mallorca. I remained there for six months, then I traveled on to Sicily and stayed there five months waiting for a ship heading to the lands of the Muslims. Finally a ship came that was heading to the city of Tunis, so I departed Sicily on it. We set sail at dusk and spotted the port of Tunis around noon. When I landed at the customshouse of Tunis, and the Christian men of religion who were there learned of my presence, they came with a boat and took me to their homes. Some of the merchants resident there in Tunis also befriended me. I stayed there as their guest living the most comfortable of lives for four months. After that I asked them if there were anyone in the household of the sultan who spoke the language of the Christians. The sultan at that time was our Lord Abū al-‘Abbās Aḥmad (may God have mercy on him!). They told me that there was in the household of the aforementioned sultan a good man, one of the highest-ranking servants, by the name of Yūsuf the physician, for the sultan's physician was part of his personal entourage. I rejoiced at this news. I asked about this man's residence and was given directions to it. I met with him and I explained my position: that I had come in order to embrace the religion of Islam. He was overjoyed at this and decided that this news should be delivered [to the sultan] by his own hands.

I mounted his horse with him and he took me to the house of the sultan, entered, and informed the sultan of what I had said. He asked permission for me to enter, and I was granted permission. Thus I appeared before the sultan. He first asked me my age and I told him that I was thirty-five years old. Then he asked me as well what sciences I had studied and I told him. He told me that I had arrived in the most auspicious manner possible and that he wished God Almighty's blessings upon me. Then I said to the translator, that is, the aformentioned physician, “Say to Our Lord the Sultan, that no man leaves his religion without causing his people to speak against him and to slander him, so I ask you in your beneficence to summon the Christian merchants and their men of religion, ask them about me and hear what they have to say of me in my absence, and then, God willing, I will convert to Islam.” He replied to me via the translator, “You have requested [from me] what ‘Abd Allāh ibn Salām requested of the Prophet himself (May God Bless and Preserve him!) when he converted to Islam!”^[1]

The sultan sent for the Christian men of religion and some of the merchants and he put me in a room near his council chamber. When the Christians entered, he asked them, “What do you have to say about this new priest who arrived on that boat?” They said, “He is a very learned man in our religion and our priests have said, `We have seen none higher than him in knowledge or faith in our religion.'” Then he said to them, “And what would you say of him if he were to convert to Islam?” They said, “We seek refuge in God from that possibility! He would never do such a thing!”

When he had heard what the Christians had to say, he sent for me and I approached him and gave witness to the true credo in the presence of the Christians and they prostrated themselves and called out, “Nothing but a desire to get married could have driven him to this, for priests of our religion cannot marry!” They left distressed and sorrowful. The sultan—may God have mercy on him!—bestowed on me a salary of four dinars per diem, granted me lodging among his retinue, and married me to the daughter of the Ḥājj Muḥammad al-Ṣaffār.

When I resolved to consummate the marriage, he gave me one hundred gold dinars and a complete new set of clothing. I consummated the union with her and she bore me a son, whom I named Muḥammad by way of a blessing, after Our Prophet Muhammad—may God bless and preserve him!

Notes