1. Alfred, Lord Tennyson, "To E. L., on His Travels in Greece," quoted in Ruth Pitman, Edward Lear's Tennyson (Manchester: Carcanet, 1988), 17. [BACK]

2. Throughout The Artist and the Author Cruikshank stresses the "partnership" of these productions, as opposed to those other times when his role is that of an illustrator of Ainsworth's or Dickens's ideas. The Artist and the Author originally appeared as a letter in the Times, and then as a pamphlet: George Cruikshank, The Artist and the Author: A Statement of Facts, by the Artist George Cruikshank: proving that the Distinguished Author, Mr. W. Harrison Ainsworth is "labouring under a singular delusion" with respect to the origin of ''The Miser's Daughter," ''The Tower of London," etc., 2nd edition (Covent Garden: Bell and Daldy, 1872). [BACK]

3. What follows in the next four paragraphs is paraphrased and expanded from my article "The Art of Seeing: Dickens in the Visual Market," in Literature in the Marketplace: Nineteenth-Century British Publishing and Reading Practices, ed. John O. Jordan and Robert L. Patten (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). [BACK]

4. Copybooks are a neglected area of research for this structural foundation of word and image association. Ambrose Heal's The English Writing-Masters and Their copy-Books, 1570-1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1931), is an early biographical dictionary on the tradition of writing masters. See also Stanley Morison, American Copy Books: An Outline of Their History to Modern Times (Philadelphia: W. M. Fell, 1951); and Vivian Henry Crellin's master's thesis on the history of the copybook, and the copybook line, "The Teaching of Writing and the Use of Copybooks in Schools," University of London, 1976. Stanley Morison's numerous texts on handwriting provide historical links between the visual arts and text (see also his introduction to Heal's book). Molly Nesbit has presented research on the subject of French educational training in drawing and line work, particularly as regards the teaching of art and language, and its influence on painters like Picasso, Braque, and Duchamp ("The Language of Industry," During Lawrence Lectures, University College London, May 1991). These lectures enabled me to develop my own thoughts and research in this area; portions of Nesbit's lectures have been published as "The Language of Industry," in The Definitively Unfinished Marcel Duchamp, ed. Thierry De Dove (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1991), 351-94. [BACK]

5. Gilbert Malcolm Sproat, Education of the Rural Poor (London: Robert John Bush, 1870), 33. [BACK]

6. For a discussion of the role of writing in Dickens's novels, see Murray Baumgarten, "Calligraphy and Code: Writing in Great Expectations, " Dickens Studies Annual 11 (1983): 61-72, and "Writing and David Copperfield, " Dickens Studies Annual 14 (1985): 39-59. [BACK]

7. The Universal Instructor; or, Self Culture for All, 3 vols. (London: Ward Lock, 1880-84). [BACK]

8. See Albert Boime's discussion of drawing schools in his Art in the Age of Revolution, 1750-1800, vol. 1 of A Social History of Modern Art (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), particularly his section on William Blake (309-12). [BACK]

9. See Boime, 320. [BACK]

10. An excellent example of the lettering used by signwriters can be found in the color plates of William Sutherland's Practical Guide to Sign Writing (1860), reproduced in A. J. Lewery, Signwritten Art (London: David and Charles, 1989), 17. Henry Mayhew mentions street stencilers in London Labour and the London Poor, 4 vols. (1861-62; reprint, New York: Dover, 1968), 1:4. [BACK]

11. Mayhew, 3:213-14. Mayhew also discusses the "Screevers or Writers of Begging-Letters and Petitions" who supplied the illiterate with begging letters (1:311) and a "Chalker on Flagstones" who did images of Napoleon and Christ for a living (3:214). [BACK]

12. Martin Meisel, Realizations: Narrative, Pictorial, and Theatrical Arts in Nineteenth-Century England (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), 33. [BACK]

13. Advertisement for the Illustrated London News, in serial issue of Charles Dickens, Martin Chuzzlewit (London: Chapman and Hall), no. 1 (January 1843), 12. [BACK]

14. William Andrew Chatto, "Wood-Engraving: Its History and Practice," Illustrated London News, 20 April 1844, 251. [BACK]

15. John Ruskin, "Academy Notes, 1875," in The Lamp of Beauty, ed. Joan Evans (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1959), 136. Ruskin goes on to compare the Academy show of 1875 to "a large coloured Illustrated Times folded in saloons,—the splendidest May number of the Graphic, shall we call it?" (135). The best work of the year, he declares, is a watercolor illustration to a story by the woodblock engraver Mrs. Allingham (136). [BACK]

16. E. Seymour, in a letter reprinted in Hippisley Tuckfield, Education for the People (London: Taylor Walton, 1839), 150. For maps that display unusual combinations of words and images, particularly from the nineteenth century, see Gillian Hill, Cartographical Curiosities (London: British Library, 1978). Noteworthy examples reproduced in Hill's text include "Hunting in Troubled Waters" (plate 58), where figures and text are used to make up European countries, and the Bellman's map in Lewis Carroll's Hunting of the Snark . [BACK]

17. Copybooks from the Bowles School, circa 1820-30, are in the Dickens House Museum, London. [BACK]

18. Examples of copybooks from the Bowles School (see n. 57) showing such flourishes are housed in the Dickens House Museum, London. [BACK]

19. Isaac Disraeli, Curiosities of Literature, quoted in Heal, The English Writing-Masters and Their Copy-Books, xvi. [BACK]

20. The painter Thomas Eakins (1844-1916) was the son of a writing master. [BACK]

21. Walter Crane, Line and Form (London: George Bell and Sons, 1912), 23. [BACK]

22. Ibid., 4. [BACK]

23. Ibid., 6. [BACK]

24. Jack Stephens, Curator of the Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site, Baddeck, Nova Scotia, has kindly provided information on this unique system. [BACK]

25. I am presently researching the numerous images of scribes, and the transcultural importance of showing the moment of the trace, in cultures ranging from ancient Egypt to the Victorian period. [BACK]

26. Wilkie Collins, The Woman in White (London: Oxford University Press, 1975), 372-73. [BACK]

27. James Isham's book is in the Hudson Bay Archives, Winnipeg, Manitoba; Tom Koppel, "Treasure-Trove of History," Canadian Geographic, (October/November 1991), shows a photograph of Isham's book (72). [BACK]

28. Illustrated London News, 10 February 1952, 208, 209; Christian Science Monitor (Boston), 7 February 1912. [BACK]

29. Joss Marsh (Stanford University), who kindly provided me with this information, also noted du Maurier's importance to the issue of the interrelatedness of the drawn and written line. In 1992 a record price of $1.3 million was set in the United States for a signed portion of a manuscript by Abraham Lincoln. [BACK]

31. Autographic Mirror, 26 August 1865, quotation on 37, image on 71. [BACK]

32. Philip Gilbert Hamerton, The Graphic Arts: A Treatise on the Varieties of Drawing, Painting, and Engraving (London: Seeley, Jackson and Halliday, 1882), 13. [BACK]

33. Ibid., 302. [BACK]

34. Stephen Bann, The Clothing of Clio (London: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 155. [BACK]

35. See Wayne Senner, "Theories and Myths on the Origins of Writing: A Historical Overview," in The Origins of Writing, ed. Wayne Senner (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989), 2, 15. [BACK]

36. The disruption was not absolute. See, for example, The Dial magazine, published by Charles Ricketts and Charles Shannon, with its stylized plates and text, or the expensive and limited publications of the Kelmscott Press. [BACK]

37. The poem, entitled "George Cruikshank," is signed V.V.D.D. (it appears on the verso of the contents page). Cruikshank's name appeared prominently in the magazine's promotion. Ainsworth's Magazines 1 (June 1842): n.p. [BACK]

38. James McNeill Whistler, Ten O'Clock Lecture (London: Chatto and Windus, 1888), 17-18. [BACK]

39. Joseph Pennell, The Illustration of Books (London: Unwin, 1896), II, 26: Pennell believed a second renaissance for the illustrator would emerge out of the present "dark moment" (11); see also his Pen Drawing and Pen Draughtsmanship (London: Macmillan, 1889), 2, 306-07. Henry Blackburn, "Cantor Lectures on the Art of Book and Newspaper Illustration," Journal of the Royal Society of Arts (27 November and 4 and 11 December 1893), 4, 11. [BACK]

40. William Henry Fox Talbot, The Pencil of Nature (London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1844); for the text of the notice, see Robert Lassam, Fox Talbot: Photographer (Dorset: Dovecote Press, 1979), 22. [BACK]

41. Quotation provided by Aynsley MacFarlene (Area Interpretation Officer), Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site, Baddeck, Nova Scotia. [BACK]

42. Blackburn, "Cantor Lectures," 2. [BACK]

43. Blackburn, "The Art of Illustration," Journal of the Royal Society of Arts 23 (12 March 1875), 373. [BACK]

44. See Leonee Ormond, George Du Maurier (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1969). [BACK]

45. Mary Barton, "Art Teaching in Schools," in Transactions of the National Association for the Advancement of Art and Its Application to Industry: Edinburgh Meeting (London, 1890), 438, 444. [BACK]

46. Ibid., 444. [BACK]

47. Walter Crane, Of the Decorative Illustration of Books Old and New (London: George Bell and Sons, 1896), 5. [BACK]

48. Walter Crane, Ideals in Art: Papers Theoretical, Practical, Critical (London: George Bell and Sons, 1905), 90. See also Crane, Of the Decorative Illustration of Books, 208. [BACK]

49. William Holman Hunt, "The Proper Mode and Study of Drawing.—1: Addressed to Students," Magazine of Art 14 (1891): 81, 83. [BACK]

50. Blackburn, "Cantor Lectures," 15-16. [BACK]