9— Sartre: The Fear of Freedom
1. Jean-Paul Sartre, The Psychology of Imagination , trans. Frechtman (New York, 1966), p. 243; cf. Descartes, Principles of Philosophy , I, 6. [BACK]
2. Sartre, "Cartesian Freedom," in Literary and Philosophical Essays , trans. Michelson (New York, 1962), p. 184; cf. Sartre, Being and Nothingness , trans. Barnes (New York, 1956), p. 483:"Success is not important to freedom." [BACK]
3. Heidegger, The Essence of Reasons , p. 127; also see Sartre, "Cartesian Freedom," in Literary and Philosophical Essays , pp. 196-197. [BACK]
7. Hegel, Philosophy of History , p. 19. [BACK]
8. Sartre, Being , p. 40.
9. Ibid., p. 93; cf. p. 620:"Consciousness is in fact a project of founding itself; that is, of attaining to the dignity of the in-itself-for-itself, or initself-as-self-cause."
10. Ibid., p. 90.
11. Ibid., p. 70n. For comments on Heidegger's concept of authenticity, see pp. 545, 564.
12. Ibid., p. 529. [BACK]
8. Sartre, Being , p. 40.
9. Ibid., p. 93; cf. p. 620:"Consciousness is in fact a project of founding itself; that is, of attaining to the dignity of the in-itself-for-itself, or initself-as-self-cause."
10. Ibid., p. 90.
11. Ibid., p. 70n. For comments on Heidegger's concept of authenticity, see pp. 545, 564.
12. Ibid., p. 529. [BACK]
8. Sartre, Being , p. 40.
9. Ibid., p. 93; cf. p. 620:"Consciousness is in fact a project of founding itself; that is, of attaining to the dignity of the in-itself-for-itself, or initself-as-self-cause."
10. Ibid., p. 90.
11. Ibid., p. 70n. For comments on Heidegger's concept of authenticity, see pp. 545, 564.
12. Ibid., p. 529. [BACK]
8. Sartre, Being , p. 40.
9. Ibid., p. 93; cf. p. 620:"Consciousness is in fact a project of founding itself; that is, of attaining to the dignity of the in-itself-for-itself, or initself-as-self-cause."
10. Ibid., p. 90.
11. Ibid., p. 70n. For comments on Heidegger's concept of authenticity, see pp. 545, 564.
12. Ibid., p. 529. [BACK]
8. Sartre, Being , p. 40.
9. Ibid., p. 93; cf. p. 620:"Consciousness is in fact a project of founding itself; that is, of attaining to the dignity of the in-itself-for-itself, or initself-as-self-cause."
10. Ibid., p. 90.
11. Ibid., p. 70n. For comments on Heidegger's concept of authenticity, see pp. 545, 564.
12. Ibid., p. 529. [BACK]
13. Sartre, Anti-Semite and jew , trans. Becker (New York, 1965), p. 90.
14. Ibid., p. 141. [BACK]
13. Sartre, Anti-Semite and jew , trans. Becker (New York, 1965), p. 90.
14. Ibid., p. 141. [BACK]
15. Sartre, Being , p. 83. [BACK]
16. Sartre, Anti-Semite , pp. 59-60. [BACK]
17. Sartre, David Rousset, and Gerard Rosenthal, Entretiens sur la politique (Paris, 1949), p. 40. Sartre has traced his own political trajectory in a fine essay on Merleau-Ponty in idem, Situations , trans. Eisler (New York, 1966), pp. 156-226. [BACK]
18. Sartre, "Materialism and Revolution," in Literary and Philosophical Essays , p. 236.
19. Ibid., pp. 234-235.
20. Ibid., pp. 241-242. [BACK]
18. Sartre, "Materialism and Revolution," in Literary and Philosophical Essays , p. 236.
19. Ibid., pp. 234-235.
20. Ibid., pp. 241-242. [BACK]
18. Sartre, "Materialism and Revolution," in Literary and Philosophical Essays , p. 236.
19. Ibid., pp. 234-235.
20. Ibid., pp. 241-242. [BACK]
21. Sartre, "Materialism," in Literary and Philosophical Essays , p. 225; cf. Being , p. 436. [BACK]
22. See, e. g., Sartre, "Materialism," p. 237. [BACK]
23. Sartre, The Communists and Peace , trans. Fletcher and Berk (New York, 1968), pp. 98, 226. [BACK]
24. Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Les Aventures de la dialectique (Paris, 1955), p. 135; AD, p. 99. break [BACK]
25. Sartre, Communists , pp. 80-81, 107. [BACK]
26. Sartre, Communists , p. 80.
27. Ibid., p. 193.
28. Ibid., p. 207.
29. Ibid., p. 222.
30. Ibid., p. 272.
31. Ibid., p. 253.
32. Ibid., p. 246. [BACK]
26. Sartre, Communists , p. 80.
27. Ibid., p. 193.
28. Ibid., p. 207.
29. Ibid., p. 222.
30. Ibid., p. 272.
31. Ibid., p. 253.
32. Ibid., p. 246. [BACK]
26. Sartre, Communists , p. 80.
27. Ibid., p. 193.
28. Ibid., p. 207.
29. Ibid., p. 222.
30. Ibid., p. 272.
31. Ibid., p. 253.
32. Ibid., p. 246. [BACK]
26. Sartre, Communists , p. 80.
27. Ibid., p. 193.
28. Ibid., p. 207.
29. Ibid., p. 222.
30. Ibid., p. 272.
31. Ibid., p. 253.
32. Ibid., p. 246. [BACK]
26. Sartre, Communists , p. 80.
27. Ibid., p. 193.
28. Ibid., p. 207.
29. Ibid., p. 222.
30. Ibid., p. 272.
31. Ibid., p. 253.
32. Ibid., p. 246. [BACK]
26. Sartre, Communists , p. 80.
27. Ibid., p. 193.
28. Ibid., p. 207.
29. Ibid., p. 222.
30. Ibid., p. 272.
31. Ibid., p. 253.
32. Ibid., p. 246. [BACK]
26. Sartre, Communists , p. 80.
27. Ibid., p. 193.
28. Ibid., p. 207.
29. Ibid., p. 222.
30. Ibid., p. 272.
31. Ibid., p. 253.
32. Ibid., p. 246. [BACK]
33. Sartre, Critique de la raison dialectique (Paris, 1960), pp. 18-21; SM, pp. 8-14. [BACK]
34. In several spots, Sartre mistakenly attributes Engels's quip that materialism is the study of nature, "just as it is, without foreign admixture," to Marx; see, e. g., ibid., p. 30n; SM, p. 32n.
35. See ibid., pp. 30-31n, 109; SM, pp. 32-33n, 178.
36. Ibid., p. 64; SM, p. 92. [BACK]
34. In several spots, Sartre mistakenly attributes Engels's quip that materialism is the study of nature, "just as it is, without foreign admixture," to Marx; see, e. g., ibid., p. 30n; SM, p. 32n.
35. See ibid., pp. 30-31n, 109; SM, pp. 32-33n, 178.
36. Ibid., p. 64; SM, p. 92. [BACK]
34. In several spots, Sartre mistakenly attributes Engels's quip that materialism is the study of nature, "just as it is, without foreign admixture," to Marx; see, e. g., ibid., p. 30n; SM, p. 32n.
35. See ibid., pp. 30-31n, 109; SM, pp. 32-33n, 178.
36. Ibid., p. 64; SM, p. 92. [BACK]
37. By "totalizing" Sartre intends to describe those ongoing human processes which bring meaning and coherence to a world, praxis foremost among them. [BACK]
38. Sartre, Critique , p. 548: CDR, p. 557.
39. Ibid., p. 361; CDR, p. 322. [BACK]
38. Sartre, Critique , p. 548: CDR, p. 557.
39. Ibid., p. 361; CDR, p. 322. [BACK]
40. Sartre, Being , p. 244; cf. idem, Critique , p. 142; CDR, p. 51: "The epistemological point of departure must always be consciousness as apodictic certainty of itself. . . . "
41. Ibid., p. 142; CDR, p. 51. [BACK]
40. Sartre, Being , p. 244; cf. idem, Critique , p. 142; CDR, p. 51: "The epistemological point of departure must always be consciousness as apodictic certainty of itself. . . . "
41. Ibid., p. 142; CDR, p. 51. [BACK]
42. Sartre, Being , pp. 267, 271, 364. [BACK]
43. Sartre, Communists , p. 250. [BACK]
44. Alfred Schutz, The Problem of Social Reality (The Hague, 1967), p. 203. [BACK]
45. Sartre, Critique , p. 205; CDR, p. 129. [BACK]
46. Sartre, Being , pp. 420-421. [BACK]
47. Sartre, Critique , p. 643; CDR, p. 679.
48. Ibid., p. 394; CDR, p. 361. Cf. Communists , pp. 222-223n:"The [collective] subject is the group brought together by the situation, structured by its very action, differentiated by the objective requirements of the praxis and by the division of labor, at first random, then systematic, which the praxis introduces, organized by the leaders which it chooses for itself or which it discovers for itself, finding in their person its own unity." [BACK]
47. Sartre, Critique , p. 643; CDR, p. 679.
48. Ibid., p. 394; CDR, p. 361. Cf. Communists , pp. 222-223n:"The [collective] subject is the group brought together by the situation, structured by its very action, differentiated by the objective requirements of the praxis and by the division of labor, at first random, then systematic, which the praxis introduces, organized by the leaders which it chooses for itself or which it discovers for itself, finding in their person its own unity." [BACK]
49. See Georges Lefebvre, The French Revolution, From its Origins to 1793 , trans. Evanson (New York, 1962), e. g., p. 237, where Lefebvre describes the insurrection of August 10, 1792, as a "defensive reaction"; or p. 122, where the revolutionary mentality is defined by three components: continue
"fear, defensive reaction, and punitive will." Cf. Sartre on the "pledged group" and terror. [BACK]
50. Sartre, Anti-Semite , p. SO; idem, Critique , p. 425; CDR, p. 401.
51. Ibid., p. 470; CDR, p. 458. [BACK]
50. Sartre, Anti-Semite , p. SO; idem, Critique , p. 425; CDR, p. 401.
51. Ibid., p. 470; CDR, p. 458. [BACK]
52. See esp. Sartre's discussion of Levi-Strauss in this regard: Sartre, Critique , pp. 490 ff.; CDR, pp. 479 ff.
53. Ibid., pp. 248-249; CDR, pp. 181-182.
54. Ibid., pp. 167, 281-282; CDR, pp. 82, 222.
55. Ibid., p. 285; CDR. p. 227.
56. Ibid., pp. 157-158; CDR, p. 71.
57. Ibid., p. 369; CDR, p. 3S1:"All men are slaves inasmuch as their vital experience unfolds in the practico-inert field, originally conditioned by scarcity."
58. Ibid., p. 286n; CDR, p. 227n. [BACK]
52. See esp. Sartre's discussion of Levi-Strauss in this regard: Sartre, Critique , pp. 490 ff.; CDR, pp. 479 ff.
53. Ibid., pp. 248-249; CDR, pp. 181-182.
54. Ibid., pp. 167, 281-282; CDR, pp. 82, 222.
55. Ibid., p. 285; CDR. p. 227.
56. Ibid., pp. 157-158; CDR, p. 71.
57. Ibid., p. 369; CDR, p. 3S1:"All men are slaves inasmuch as their vital experience unfolds in the practico-inert field, originally conditioned by scarcity."
58. Ibid., p. 286n; CDR, p. 227n. [BACK]
52. See esp. Sartre's discussion of Levi-Strauss in this regard: Sartre, Critique , pp. 490 ff.; CDR, pp. 479 ff.
53. Ibid., pp. 248-249; CDR, pp. 181-182.
54. Ibid., pp. 167, 281-282; CDR, pp. 82, 222.
55. Ibid., p. 285; CDR. p. 227.
56. Ibid., pp. 157-158; CDR, p. 71.
57. Ibid., p. 369; CDR, p. 3S1:"All men are slaves inasmuch as their vital experience unfolds in the practico-inert field, originally conditioned by scarcity."
58. Ibid., p. 286n; CDR, p. 227n. [BACK]
52. See esp. Sartre's discussion of Levi-Strauss in this regard: Sartre, Critique , pp. 490 ff.; CDR, pp. 479 ff.
53. Ibid., pp. 248-249; CDR, pp. 181-182.
54. Ibid., pp. 167, 281-282; CDR, pp. 82, 222.
55. Ibid., p. 285; CDR. p. 227.
56. Ibid., pp. 157-158; CDR, p. 71.
57. Ibid., p. 369; CDR, p. 3S1:"All men are slaves inasmuch as their vital experience unfolds in the practico-inert field, originally conditioned by scarcity."
58. Ibid., p. 286n; CDR, p. 227n. [BACK]
52. See esp. Sartre's discussion of Levi-Strauss in this regard: Sartre, Critique , pp. 490 ff.; CDR, pp. 479 ff.
53. Ibid., pp. 248-249; CDR, pp. 181-182.
54. Ibid., pp. 167, 281-282; CDR, pp. 82, 222.
55. Ibid., p. 285; CDR. p. 227.
56. Ibid., pp. 157-158; CDR, p. 71.
57. Ibid., p. 369; CDR, p. 3S1:"All men are slaves inasmuch as their vital experience unfolds in the practico-inert field, originally conditioned by scarcity."
58. Ibid., p. 286n; CDR, p. 227n. [BACK]
52. See esp. Sartre's discussion of Levi-Strauss in this regard: Sartre, Critique , pp. 490 ff.; CDR, pp. 479 ff.
53. Ibid., pp. 248-249; CDR, pp. 181-182.
54. Ibid., pp. 167, 281-282; CDR, pp. 82, 222.
55. Ibid., p. 285; CDR. p. 227.
56. Ibid., pp. 157-158; CDR, p. 71.
57. Ibid., p. 369; CDR, p. 3S1:"All men are slaves inasmuch as their vital experience unfolds in the practico-inert field, originally conditioned by scarcity."
58. Ibid., p. 286n; CDR, p. 227n. [BACK]
52. See esp. Sartre's discussion of Levi-Strauss in this regard: Sartre, Critique , pp. 490 ff.; CDR, pp. 479 ff.
53. Ibid., pp. 248-249; CDR, pp. 181-182.
54. Ibid., pp. 167, 281-282; CDR, pp. 82, 222.
55. Ibid., p. 285; CDR. p. 227.
56. Ibid., pp. 157-158; CDR, p. 71.
57. Ibid., p. 369; CDR, p. 3S1:"All men are slaves inasmuch as their vital experience unfolds in the practico-inert field, originally conditioned by scarcity."
58. Ibid., p. 286n; CDR, p. 227n. [BACK]
59. In a 1969 interview, Sartre described his current view of subjectivity as "the small margin in an operation whereby an interiorization re-exteriorizes itself in an act." He failed to add that this "small margin" still carried the entire burden of freedom and transcendence; in other words, subjectivity remains for Sartre the meaningful hinge of history, the source of creativity, the reason history progresses rather than merely repeats itself. See Sartre, "Itinerary of a Thought," in Between Existentialism and Marxism , trans. Matthews (London, 1974), p. 35. [BACK]
60. Sartre, Critique , pp. 135, 142; CDR, pp. 40, 51-52.
61. Ibid., p. 153; CDR, p. 66.
62. Ibid., p. 180 (on formalism), 194 (on the dyad and third), ISO (on dialectical Reason); CDR, pp. 3S-34, 97, 115. Cf. Simmel's introduction to Soziologie , "How Is Society Possible?" in his On Individuality and Social Forms , ed. Levine (Chicago, 1971), pp. 6-22. [BACK]
60. Sartre, Critique , pp. 135, 142; CDR, pp. 40, 51-52.
61. Ibid., p. 153; CDR, p. 66.
62. Ibid., p. 180 (on formalism), 194 (on the dyad and third), ISO (on dialectical Reason); CDR, pp. 3S-34, 97, 115. Cf. Simmel's introduction to Soziologie , "How Is Society Possible?" in his On Individuality and Social Forms , ed. Levine (Chicago, 1971), pp. 6-22. [BACK]
60. Sartre, Critique , pp. 135, 142; CDR, pp. 40, 51-52.
61. Ibid., p. 153; CDR, p. 66.
62. Ibid., p. 180 (on formalism), 194 (on the dyad and third), ISO (on dialectical Reason); CDR, pp. 3S-34, 97, 115. Cf. Simmel's introduction to Soziologie , "How Is Society Possible?" in his On Individuality and Social Forms , ed. Levine (Chicago, 1971), pp. 6-22. [BACK]
63. Sec Sartre, Critique , p. 106; SM, p. 171.
64. Ibid., p. 276; CDR, p. 216.
65. Ibid., p. 349n; CDR, p. S07n. [BACK]
63. Sec Sartre, Critique , p. 106; SM, p. 171.
64. Ibid., p. 276; CDR, p. 216.
65. Ibid., p. 349n; CDR, p. S07n. [BACK]
63. Sec Sartre, Critique , p. 106; SM, p. 171.
64. Ibid., p. 276; CDR, p. 216.
65. Ibid., p. 349n; CDR, p. S07n. [BACK]
66. See Merleau-Ponty, Les A ventures, esp . pp. 181-182; AD, pp. 134135. Cf. Sartre, Communists , p. 127:"An action of some importance requires unity of direction; and he [the worker], precisely, needs to believe that there is a truth. . . . He must be able to trust his class leaders profoundly enough to believe he is getting the truth from them. . . . Doubt and uncertainty: these seem to be intellectual virtues. But he must struggle to change his conditions, and these virtues of the mind can only paralyze action. . . . " [BACK]
67. Sartre, Critique , p. 59; SM, p. 83. [BACK]
68. Sartre. "Itinerary," in Between Existentialism and Marxism , p. 37. break [BACK]
69. Sartre, Anti-Semite , pp. 18-19. [BACK]
70. Sartre, Communists , pp. 25S, 270. [BACK]
71. Sartre. Critique , p. 86; SM, p. 133.
72. Ibid., p. 20; SM, p. 12. [BACK]
71. Sartre. Critique , p. 86; SM, p. 133.
72. Ibid., p. 20; SM, p. 12. [BACK]
73. Sartre, Being , p. 561. [BACK]
74. Sartre, Critique , p. 63; SM, p. 91:"For us man if characterized above all by his going beyond a situation, and by what he succeeds in making of what he has been made—even if he never recognizes himself in his objectification." [BACK]
75. Sartre, L'ldiot de la famille (Paris, 1971), p. 7; Being , p. 563. [BACK]
76. Sartre, L'ldiot , p. 1372. [BACK]
77. Sartre, Critique , p. 156; CDR, p. 70; see also ibid., p. 140, CDR, p. 49.
78. Ibid., p. 89; SM, p. 140. [BACK]
77. Sartre, Critique , p. 156; CDR, p. 70; see also ibid., p. 140, CDR, p. 49.
78. Ibid., p. 89; SM, p. 140. [BACK]
79. Sartre, L'ldiot , p. 7, and Critique , p. 9; CDR, pp. 821-822. Sartre's obsession with the individual imports an idiosyncratic reductionism into his work. The individual becomes a molecular universal history, with his own coherent telos and in-itself-for-itself (identity). Perhaps this is the impulse behind his insistence that biography reduce the role of contingency and chance to an absolute minimum: "What we intend to show is that this Napoleon was necessary." (Ibid., p. 58; SM, p. 83.) No wonder L'ldiot runs over 3, 000 pagesl [BACK]
80. Sartre, Critique , p. 72; SM, p. 108.
81. Ibid., p. 66; SM, p. 97.
82. Ibid., p. 133; CDR, p. 38:"The dialectic is only discovered in an observer situated in inferiority, i. e., an inquirer who lives his inquiry simultaneously as a possible contribution to the ideology of the epoch and as a particular praxis of an individual defined by his personal and historical adventure in the midst of a more ample history which conditions it." [BACK]
80. Sartre, Critique , p. 72; SM, p. 108.
81. Ibid., p. 66; SM, p. 97.
82. Ibid., p. 133; CDR, p. 38:"The dialectic is only discovered in an observer situated in inferiority, i. e., an inquirer who lives his inquiry simultaneously as a possible contribution to the ideology of the epoch and as a particular praxis of an individual defined by his personal and historical adventure in the midst of a more ample history which conditions it." [BACK]
80. Sartre, Critique , p. 72; SM, p. 108.
81. Ibid., p. 66; SM, p. 97.
82. Ibid., p. 133; CDR, p. 38:"The dialectic is only discovered in an observer situated in inferiority, i. e., an inquirer who lives his inquiry simultaneously as a possible contribution to the ideology of the epoch and as a particular praxis of an individual defined by his personal and historical adventure in the midst of a more ample history which conditions it." [BACK]
83. Andre Gorz has consistently applied Sartre's philosophy to elaborate a sober—and attractive—version of syndicalism. See idem. Strategy for Labor , trans. Nicolaus and Orriz (Boston, 1967), and idem, Le Socialisme difficile (Paris, 1967). [BACK]
84. Sartre, Critique , pp. 44-45; SM, p. 56.
85. Ibid., p. 143; CDR, p. 52. [BACK]
84. Sartre, Critique , pp. 44-45; SM, p. 56.
85. Ibid., p. 143; CDR, p. 52. [BACK]