1. Mao Tse-tung [Mao Zedong], Selected Works (New York: International Publishers, 1954), 2: 272. [BACK]

2. James E. Sheridan, Chinese Warlord: The Career of Feng Yuhsiang (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1966); Donald Gillin, Warlord: Yen Hsi-shan in Shansi Province, 1911 - 1949 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967). [BACK]

3. Listed chronologically, the most important of these studies are as follows: Lucian W. Pye, Warlord Politics: Conflict and Coalition in the Modernization of Republican China (New York: Praeger, 1971); Robert A. Kapp, Szechwan and the Chinese Republic: Provincial Militarism and Central Power, 1911 - 1938 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973); Diana Lary, Region and Nation: The Kwangsi Clique in Chinese Politics, 1925 - 1937 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974); Hsi-sheng Ch'i, Warlord Politics in China, 1916 - 1928 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1976); Gavan McCormack, Chang Tso-lin in Northeast China, 1911 - 1928: China, Japan and the Manchurian Idea (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1977); Odoric Y. K. Wou, Militarism in Modern China: The Career of Wu P'ei-fu (Dawson: Australian National University Press, 1978); Jerome Ch'en, The Military-Gentry Coalition: China under the Warlords (Toronto: University of Toronto-York University Joint Centre on Modern East Asia, 1979); Donald S. Sutton, Provincial Militarism and the Chinese Republic: The Yunnan Army, 1905 - 25 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1980). [BACK]

4. For a review of the growth of research and publications on warlord studies in the People's Republic of China, see Edward A. continue

McCord, "Recent Progress in Warlord Studies in the People's Republic of China," Republican China 9, no. 2 (Feb. 1984): 40-47. [BACK]

5. Only three Western books were published after 1980 in the field of warlord studies: Anthony B. Chan, Arming the Chinese: The Western Armament Trade in Warlord China, 1920 - 1928 (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1982); Diana Lary, Warlord Soldiers: Chinese Common Soldiers, 1911 - 1937 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); and Andrew D.W. Forbes, Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang, 1911 - 1949 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). [BACK]

6. See, e.g., Lary, Region and Nation , 11-12, and Ch'i, 1. [BACK]

7. For a discussion of the historical development of the concept of militarism, see Volker R. Berghahn, Militarism: The History of an International Debate, 1861 - 1979 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981). Stanislav Andreski has identified four major components in the common usage of the term militarism : militancy, an "aggressive foreign policy involving the readiness to resort to war"; militocracy, the "preponderance of the military in the state"; militarization, "extensive control by the military over social life, coupled with the subservience of the whole society to the needs of the army"; and militolatry, the "adulation of military virtues." Stanislav Andreski, Military Organization and Society , 2d ed. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1968), 184-86. [BACK]

8. Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences , ed. Edwin R. A. Seligman (reprint; New York: Macmillan Co., 1967), 12: 305. [BACK]

9. For example, Samuel Huntington uses praetorianism to refer to the politicization not only of the military but of other social groups such as students or the clergy. Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968), 194-95. [BACK]

10. Sutton, Provincial Militarism , 2-3. [BACK]

11. A number of scholars add further descriptive criteria to their definitions of warlordism, but accumulating case studies challenge their general applicability. For example, many scholars include the control of a well-defined territorial base in their definition of a warlord. See Lary, "Warlord Studies," Modern China 6, no. 4 (Oct. 1980): 441; Sheridan, Chinese Warlord , 8; Jerome Ch'en, "Defining Chinese Warlords and Their Factions," Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 31, no. 3 (1968): 578. There were cases, however, of warlords who operated "on the run" or without stable territorial bases. See Wou, Militarism , 270; Ch'i, 47. Likewise, Jerome Ch'en's attempt to link warlords to a specific conservative mentality, or to define them as being devoid of any sensitivity to nationalism, is continue

countered by Winston Hsieh's portrayal of the relatively progressive and nationalist attitudes held by one Guangdong warlord. See Ch'en, "Defining Chinese Warlords," 568-80; Winston Hsieh, "The Ideas and Ideals of a Warlord: Ch'en Chiung-ming (1878-1933)," Papers on China (Harvard University East Asia Research Center) 16 (1962): 198-252. [BACK]

12. See, e.g., Claude E. Welch, "Soldier and State in Africa," Journal of Modern African Studies 5, no. 3 (1967): 312-13. [BACK]

13. For a more detailed survey of the theories on military coups, see Staffan Wiking, Military Coups in Sub-Saharan Africa: How to Justify Illegal Assumptions of Power (Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, 1983), 16-69. Also see Donald L. Horowitz, Coup Theories and Officer's Motives: Sri Lanka in Comparative Perspective (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), 3-15. [BACK]

14. The work most closely associated with this approach is Morris Janowitz, The Military in the Political Development of New Nations (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964). [BACK]

15. Huntington, Political Order , 194. [BACK]

17. Daiying, "Weishenma you zheduo neizhan" [Why there are so many civil wars], Zhongguo qingnian [China's Youth], Oct. 18, 1924. [BACK]

18. Luo Ergang was the first to propose this theory. See id., "Qingji bingwei jiangyou de qiyuan" [The origin of the personal armies of the Qing period], Zhongguo shehui jingji shi jikan [Collected papers on Chinese social and economic history] 5, no. 2 (1937). Franz Michael first elaborated further on it in his "Military Organization and Power Structure of China during the Taiping Rebellion," Pacific Historical Review 18 (Nov. 1949). [BACK]

19. Sutton, Provincial Militarism , vii.

20. Ibid., vii, 9. [BACK]

19. Sutton, Provincial Militarism , vii.

20. Ibid., vii, 9. [BACK]

21. Mao Tse-tung, 1: 65. [BACK]

22. McCord, "Recent Progress," 46-47. [BACK]

23. See, e.g., William W. Whitson, The Chinese High Command: A History of Communist Military Politics, 1927 - 1971 (New York: Praeger, 1973), 7. [BACK]

24. Wou, Militarism , 151-97. [BACK]

25. McCord, "Recent Progress," 46-47. [BACK]

26. See, e.g., C. Martin Wilbur, "Military Separation and the Process of Reunification under the Nationalist Regime, 1922-1937," in China's Heritage and the Communist Political System , vol. 1, book 1 of China in Crisis , ed. Ping-ti Ho and Tang Tsou (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), 217-18. [BACK]

27. For various expressions of this theory, see Lary, Region and continue

Nation , 12; Ch'en, "Defining Chinese Warlords," 567; Sutton, Provincial Militarism , 6; Pye, Warlord Politics , 8; Ralph Powell, The Rise of Chinese Military Power, 1895 - 1912 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1955), 336-37; Wilbur, 18-19. [BACK]

28. S. E. Finer, The Man on Horseback: The Role of the Military in Politics (New York: Praeger, 1962), 23. [BACK]

29. The Chinese Empire: A General and Missionary Survey , ed. Marshall Broomhall (London: Morgan & Scott, 1907), 164-74, 114-19; Julian Arnold, Commercial Handbook of China (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1919), 1: 20-21, 135-36, 402-3. [BACK]

30. Joseph W. Esherick, Reform and Revolution in China: The 1911 Revolution in Hunan and Hubei (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1976). Two other provincial case studies of Hunan that provide useful background information for the period under consideration in this study are Charlton M. Lewis, Prologue to the Chinese Revolution: The Transformation of Ideas and Institutions in Hunan Province, 1891 - 1907 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); and Angus W. McDonald, Jr., The Urban Origins of Rural Revolution: Elites and Masses in Hunan Province, China, 1911 - 1927 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1978). Although there have been no similar case studies focusing on Hubei as a whole, William Rowe's two-volume study of Hankou provides illuminating and detailed insights into some aspects of Hubei's society and economy. William T. Rowe, Hankow: Commerce and Society in a Chinese City, 1796 - 1889 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984); William T. Rowe, Hankow: Conflict and Community in a Chinese City, 1796 - 1895 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989). [BACK]

31. See Diana Lary's comments on regional studies and their problems in "Warlord Studies," 456-60. [BACK]