1. For a study of the Banner Army, see Wu Wei-ping, "The Development and Decline of the Eight Banners" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1969). [BACK]

2. The best source on the Green Standard Army is Luo Ergang's Lüying bingzhi [Treatise on the Green Standard Army] (1945; reprint, Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1984). [BACK]

3. At different times, the official number of Banner Army troops ranged from around 170,000 to almost 300,000 men, while the Green Standard Army varied from 590,000 to 660,000 men. The actual rather than official number of troops was often considerably less in both forces. Powell, 11-13. break [BACK]

4. Powell, 14-15; Franz Michael, "Regionalism in Nineteenth-Century China," introduction to Stanley Spector, Li Hung-chang and the Huai Army: A Study in Nineteenth-Century Chinese Regionalism (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964), xxxii-xxxiii; Raymond W. Chu and William G. Saywell, Career Patterns in the Ch'ing Dynasty: The Office of Governor-General (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, 1984), 21-23. [BACK]

5. Michael, "Regionalism," xxxii-xxxiii; Chu and Saywell, 20-21. [BACK]

6. Wu Wei-ping, 75-112. [BACK]

7. Michael, "Regionalism," xxxiii-xxxv; Luo Ergang, Xiangjun xinzhi [A new record of the Xiang Army] (Changsha: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1939), 2-15. [BACK]

8. T.F. Wade, "The Army of the Chinese Empire: Its Two Great Divisions, the Bannermen or National Guard, and the Green Standard or Provincial Troops; Their Organization, Locations, Pay, Condition, etc.," The Chinese Repository 10 (1851): 420-21. [BACK]

9. For studies of the Xiang Army and the Huai Army, see Luo Ergang's Xiangjun xinzhi and Wang Ermin's Huaijun zhi [Treatise on the Huai Army] (Taibei: Zhongyang yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo, 1967). Philip A. Kuhn's Rebellion and Its Enemies in Late Imperial China: Militarization and Social Structure, 1796 - 1864 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970) shows that the yongying represented a new form of military organization, correcting the tendency of many scholars to view them simply as enlarged militias. [BACK]

10. For a detailed discussion of the development of the lijin , see Luo Yudong, Zhongguo lijin shi [History of China's lijin ] (Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1936). [BACK]

11. The best discussion of the transformation of the mufu is Jonathan Porter, Tseng Kuo-fan's Private Bureaucracy (Berkeley: Center for Chinese Studies, University of California, Berkeley, 1972). Also see Kenneth Folsom, Friends, Guests and Colleagues: The Mu-fu System in the Late Ch'ing Period (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1968). [BACK]

12. Luo Ergang, "Qingji bingwei jiangyou," 235-37, 249-50; Luo Ergang, Xiangjun , 232-45. [BACK]

13. Michael, "Regionalism," i.

14. Ibid., xl-xli; Michael, "Military Organization," 479. [BACK]

13. Michael, "Regionalism," i.

14. Ibid., xl-xli; Michael, "Military Organization," 479. [BACK]

15. Luo Ergang, "Qingji bingwei jiangyou," 237. [BACK]

16. Michael, "Regionalism," xlii. [BACK]

17. See, e.g., Frederic Wakeman, Jr., The Fall of Imperial China (New York: Free Press, 1977), 165; Li Chien-nung, The Political History of China, 1840 - 1928 , trans. Ssu-yu Teng and Jeremy Ingalls (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1956), 93; Powell, 23; Ch'i, 12; Sheridan, Chinese Warlord , 6, 8; Lary, Region and Nation , 11; and Wilbur, 216. break [BACK]

18. Powell, 33-34; Wang Ermin, Huaijun , 385; Liu Kwang-ching, "The Limits of Regional Power in the Late Ch'ing Period: A Reappraisal," Tsing Hua Journal of Chinese Studies , n.s., 10, no. 2 (July 1974): 213. [BACK]

19. Powell, 35; Liu Kwang-ching, "Regional Power," 208, 213-16. [BACK]

20. Powell, 34; Liu Kwang-ching, "Regional Power," 217-18. [BACK]

21. David Pong, "The Income and Military Expenditures of Kiangsi Province in the Last Years (1860-1864) of the Taiping Rebellion," Journal of Asian Studies 26 (Nov. 1966): 49-65. [BACK]

22. Liu Kwang-ching, "Regional Power," 219-21. See also Chu and Saywell, 17-20. [BACK]

23. Wang Ermin, Huaijun , 377-86.

24. Ibid., 384-85. [BACK]

23. Wang Ermin, Huaijun , 377-86.

24. Ibid., 384-85. [BACK]

25. Liu Kwang-ching, "Li Hung-chang in Chihli: The Emergence of a Policy, 1870-75," in Approaches to Modern Chinese History , ed. Albert Feuerwerker, Rhoads Murphey, and Mary C. Wright (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1967), 68-105. [BACK]

26. Daniel H. Bays, "The Nature of Provincial Political Authority in Late Ch'ing Times: Chang Chih-tung in Canton, 1884-1889," Modern Asian Studies 4, no. 4 (Oct. 1970): 325-47. [BACK]

27. Livingston Tallmadge Merchant, "The Mandarin President: Xu Shichang and the Militarization of Chinese Politics" (Ph.D. diss., Brown University, 1983), 74-75. [BACK]

28. Sutton, Provincial Militarism , 6. [BACK]

29. This is exemplified in the traditional complementary expression wenwu shuangquan , "well-versed in both letters and martial arts." [BACK]

30. Liu Kwang-ching and Richard J. Smith, "The Military Challenge: The North-West and the Coast," in The Cambridge History of China , vol. 11, Late Ch'ing, 1800 - 1911 , part 2, ed. Denis Twitchett and John King Fairbank (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 204-8; Powell, 37-38. [BACK]

31. An excellent history of this naval program is John L. Rawlinson, China's Struggle for Naval Development, 1839 - 1895 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1967). [BACK]

32. A survey of the introduction of Western arms and a history of Chinese arsenals can be found in Wang Ermin, Qingji binggongye de xingqi [The rise of the munitions industry of the Qing period] (Taibei: Zhongyang yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo, 1978). In English, see Thomas L. Kennedy, The Arms of Kiangnan: Modernization and the Chinese Ordnance Industry, 1860 - 1895 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1978). [BACK]

33. Powell, 18-19; Liu and Smith, 208-9, 245. [BACK]

34. Powell, 41-42. Anita M. O'Brien, "Military Academies in continue

China, 1885-1915," in Perspectives on a Changing China , ed. Joshua A. Fogel and William T. Rowe (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1979), 157-58. [BACK]

35. Powell, 30-31. [BACK]

36. A brief history of the Self-Strengthening Army can be found in Powell, 60-71. For a detailed study of the Newly Created Army, see Liu Fenghan, Xinjian lujun [The Newly Created Army] (Taibei: Zhongyang yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo, 1967); also see Powell, 71-82. [BACK]

37. The best study of Yuan Shikai and the development of the Beiyang Army is Stephen R. MacKinnon, Power and Politics in Late Imperial China: Yuan Shi-kai in Beijing and Tianjin, 1901 - 1908 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1980). For an outline of the development of the Beiyang Army, see pp. 91-103. [BACK]

38. Powell, 134-35, 166-88.

39. Ibid., 288. A table of these units showing their locations and commanders in 1911 can be found in Edmund S. K. Fung, The Military Dimension of the Chinese Revolution (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1980), 263-64. [BACK]

38. Powell, 134-35, 166-88.

39. Ibid., 288. A table of these units showing their locations and commanders in 1911 can be found in Edmund S. K. Fung, The Military Dimension of the Chinese Revolution (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1980), 263-64. [BACK]

40. O'Brien, 158-69. [BACK]

41. Luo Ergang, "Qingji bingwei jiangyou," 249. [BACK]

42. Stephen R. MacKinnon, "The Peiyang Army, Yuan Shih-k'ai, and the Origins of Modern Chinese Warlordism," Journal of Asian Studies 32 (May 1973): 405-23; and MacKinnon, Power . [BACK]

43. MacKinnon, "Peiyang Army," 406. [BACK]

44. In a detailed study of Beiyang Army finances, Odoric Wou reaches a conclusion somewhat contrary to MacKinnon's. Wou shows that Yuan relied even more heavily on local funding than predecessors like Li Hongzhang. He suggests that by being less dependent on direct central funding, Yuan gained firmer control over his financial base and thus behaved even more like a "regional" leader. Odoric Y. K. Wou, "Financing the New Army: Yuan Shih-k'ai and the Peiyang Army, 1895-1907," Asian Profile 11, no. 4 (Aug. 1983): 339-56. This does not, however, necessarily challenge MacKinnon's contention that ultimately Yuan's control over his finances was dependent on court support. [BACK]

45. MacKinnon, Power , 221-22.

46. Ibid., 10. [BACK]

45. MacKinnon, Power , 221-22.

46. Ibid., 10. [BACK]

47. MacKinnon, "Peiyang Army," 422.

48. Ibid., 414-23. [BACK]

47. MacKinnon, "Peiyang Army," 422.

48. Ibid., 414-23. [BACK]

49. Sutton, Provincial Militarism , 2. [BACK]

50. Andrew Nathan, Peking Politics, 1918 - 1923: Factionalism and the Failure of Constitutionalism (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1976), 44. [BACK]

51. Powell, 144, 205, 245-46. break [BACK]

52. Ichiko Chuzo, "Political and Institutional Reform," in The Cambridge History of China , vol. 11, Late Ch'ing, 1800 - 1911 , part 2, ed. Denis Twitchett and John King Fairbank (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 384. [BACK]

53. Powell, 247-248; Wen Gongzhi, Zuijin sanshinian Zhongguo junshi shi [A military history of China in the past thirty years] (Shanghai: Taipingyang shudian, 1930), 1: 12-14. [BACK]

54. Powell, 173-75. [BACK]

55. From late 1894 to early 1896, Zhang held the post of governor-general at Nanjing. In late 1902, he returned to Nanjing for six months, and then was transferred to a Beijing post, before returning to Hubei in 1904. Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period (1644 - 1912 ), ed. Arthur W. Hummel (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1943), 27-31. [BACK]

56. Su Yunfeng, Zhongguo xiandaihua de quyu yanjiu: Hubei sheng, 1860 - 1916 [Regional research on China's modernization: Hubei Province, 1860-1916] (Taibei: Zhongyang yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo, 1981), 240; Powell, 69. [BACK]

57. Su Yunfeng, 242-44.

58. Ibid., 245-46; Powell, 219-22. [BACK]

57. Su Yunfeng, 242-44.

58. Ibid., 245-46; Powell, 219-22. [BACK]

59. A comparative chart of provincial military forces can be found in Shen Jian, "Xinhai geming qianxi woguo zhi lujun ji qi junfei" [Our nation's army and its military expenses on the eve of the 1911 Revolution], Shehui kexue [The Social Sciences] 2, no. 2 (Jan. 1937): 389. In southern and central China, only Jiangsu surpassed Hubei's 16,102-man New Army, with 25,682 men, while Sichuan had an equivalently sized force of 16,096 men. The next largest New Army was Yunnan's, with 10,977 men. None of the remaining provincial New Armies had above nine thousand men, while the smallest, that of Guizhou Province, had fewer than two thousand. [BACK]

60. He Dingdong, "Zhang Zhidong Huguang zongdu rennei zhi jianshu" [The achievements of Zhang Zhidong during his tenure as Huguang governor-general], Hubei wenxian [Hubei Documents] 65 (Oct. 10, 1982): 49; Powell, 70. [BACK]

61. Zhang Zhidong, Zhang Wenxiang gong quanji [The complete works of Zhang Zhidong] (Beijing: Chuxue jinglu, 1937), 44 juan : 13b-17a, 49 juan : 12b-15a. Qi Chucai, "Hubei xinjun bianlian jingguo" [The course of the organization and training of Hubei's New Army], in Wuhan wenshi ziliao [Wuhan cultural and historical materials], ed. Zhongguo renmin zhengzhi xieshang huiyi Wuhan shi weiyuanhui, wenshi ziliao yanjiu weiyuanhui [Research committee on cultural and historical materials, Wuhan City committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference], vol. 23 (Wuhan: Qingnian yinshuachang, 1986): 92. break [BACK]

62. Shen Jian, 373.

63. Ibid., 373-74, lists 7,262 men in Hubei's Green Standard Army in 1910. Shibao [Eastern Times], May 15, 1911, notes preparations for the Green Standard's final disbandment that June. At this point, only 2,800 Green Standard soldiers remained, including some remnant lianjun troops also slated for disbandment. [BACK]

62. Shen Jian, 373.

63. Ibid., 373-74, lists 7,262 men in Hubei's Green Standard Army in 1910. Shibao [Eastern Times], May 15, 1911, notes preparations for the Green Standard's final disbandment that June. At this point, only 2,800 Green Standard soldiers remained, including some remnant lianjun troops also slated for disbandment. [BACK]

64. Originally over twenty thousand yongying troops were gathered in Hubei during the midcentury rebellions, but by the late 1850s these forces had been reduced by a half. Su Yunfeng, 19. Shen Jian, 390, cites one source that lists Hubei's yongying before the Sino-Japanese War at only six thousand men. [BACK]

65. Shen Jian, 374, gives a figure of 7,600 men. Shao Baichang, "Xinhai Wuchang shouyi zhi qianyin houguo ji qi zuozhan jingguo" [The causes and effects of the 1911 Wuchang uprising and its military operations], Hubei wenxian 10 (Jan. 10, 1969): 20, gives a smaller figure of 2,500 men for Hubei's Patrol and Defense Forces. This figure appears to be based on official regulations that called for five "routes" of Patrol and Defense Forces in each province with a total of five hundred men per route. Thus this figure may not be an actual accounting of the size of Hubei's forces. [BACK]

66. Shen Jian, 373; Su Yunfeng, 244. [BACK]

67. Qian Shifu, Qingji zhongyao zhiguan nianbiao [Registry of important officials in the Qing period] (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1959), 193-222. [BACK]

68. Zhang Pengyuan, Zhongguo xiandaihua de quyu yanjiu: Hunan sheng, 1860 - 1916 [Regional research on China's modernization: Hunan Province, 1860-1916] (Taibei: Zhongyang yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo, 1983), 209. [BACK]

69. Shen Jian, 374, citing a 1910 source, gives the number of men in the 25th Mixed Brigade as 4,443. An organizational table of the 25th Mixed Brigade provided in another source gives the slightly higher figure of 4,755 men. Gesheng caizheng shuomingshu [Explanation of provincial finances], ed. Jingji xuehui [Economics study society], vol. 10 (Beijing, 1915), "Hunan quansheng caizheng shuomingshu" [Explanation of Hunan provincial finances], junzhengfei [military expenses], 86-97. [BACK]

70. Jingji xuehui, "Hunan quansheng caizheng shuomingshu," junzhengfei , 3-65. [BACK]

71. Shen Jian, 373, gives a total of 16,012 men for Hunan's Green Standard Army, based on a 1910 source. Another listing of officers and soldiers in Hunan Green Standard units for 1911 reflects further disbandment, with a total of only 12,033 men. Jingji xuehui, "Hunan quansheng caizheng shuomingshu," junzhengfei , 3-65. [BACK]

72. Zhang Pengyuan, 206. break

73. Ibid., 206-7.

74. Ibid., 206, estimates the number of Hunan Patrol and Defense troops in 1906 at around 12,000. Jingji xuehui, "Hunan quansheng caizheng shuomingshu," junzhengfei , 80-84, lists a total of 13,830 officers and men for 1911. Shen Jian, 374, citing a 1910 source, gives an even higher figure of 15,041 men. [BACK]

72. Zhang Pengyuan, 206. break

73. Ibid., 206-7.

74. Ibid., 206, estimates the number of Hunan Patrol and Defense troops in 1906 at around 12,000. Jingji xuehui, "Hunan quansheng caizheng shuomingshu," junzhengfei , 80-84, lists a total of 13,830 officers and men for 1911. Shen Jian, 374, citing a 1910 source, gives an even higher figure of 15,041 men. [BACK]

72. Zhang Pengyuan, 206. break

73. Ibid., 206-7.

74. Ibid., 206, estimates the number of Hunan Patrol and Defense troops in 1906 at around 12,000. Jingji xuehui, "Hunan quansheng caizheng shuomingshu," junzhengfei , 80-84, lists a total of 13,830 officers and men for 1911. Shen Jian, 374, citing a 1910 source, gives an even higher figure of 15,041 men. [BACK]

75. Zhang Pengyuan, 209. [BACK]

76. Powell, 154-55.

77. Ibid., 219-24. For example, in 1903 Zhang could not prevent the transfer of eight of Hubei's best New Army battalions to the control of the Liangguang governor-general to aid in the suppression of Guangxi rebels. Powell, 156. [BACK]

76. Powell, 154-55.

77. Ibid., 219-24. For example, in 1903 Zhang could not prevent the transfer of eight of Hubei's best New Army battalions to the control of the Liangguang governor-general to aid in the suppression of Guangxi rebels. Powell, 156. [BACK]