1. Mao Tse-tung [Mao Zedong], Selected Works (New York: International Publishers, 1954), 2: 272. [BACK]

2. James E. Sheridan, Chinese Warlord: The Career of Feng Yuhsiang (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1966); Donald Gillin, Warlord: Yen Hsi-shan in Shansi Province, 1911 - 1949 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967). [BACK]

3. Listed chronologically, the most important of these studies are as follows: Lucian W. Pye, Warlord Politics: Conflict and Coalition in the Modernization of Republican China (New York: Praeger, 1971); Robert A. Kapp, Szechwan and the Chinese Republic: Provincial Militarism and Central Power, 1911 - 1938 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973); Diana Lary, Region and Nation: The Kwangsi Clique in Chinese Politics, 1925 - 1937 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974); Hsi-sheng Ch'i, Warlord Politics in China, 1916 - 1928 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1976); Gavan McCormack, Chang Tso-lin in Northeast China, 1911 - 1928: China, Japan and the Manchurian Idea (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1977); Odoric Y. K. Wou, Militarism in Modern China: The Career of Wu P'ei-fu (Dawson: Australian National University Press, 1978); Jerome Ch'en, The Military-Gentry Coalition: China under the Warlords (Toronto: University of Toronto-York University Joint Centre on Modern East Asia, 1979); Donald S. Sutton, Provincial Militarism and the Chinese Republic: The Yunnan Army, 1905 - 25 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1980). [BACK]

4. For a review of the growth of research and publications on warlord studies in the People's Republic of China, see Edward A. continue

McCord, "Recent Progress in Warlord Studies in the People's Republic of China," Republican China 9, no. 2 (Feb. 1984): 40-47. [BACK]

5. Only three Western books were published after 1980 in the field of warlord studies: Anthony B. Chan, Arming the Chinese: The Western Armament Trade in Warlord China, 1920 - 1928 (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1982); Diana Lary, Warlord Soldiers: Chinese Common Soldiers, 1911 - 1937 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); and Andrew D.W. Forbes, Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang, 1911 - 1949 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). [BACK]

6. See, e.g., Lary, Region and Nation , 11-12, and Ch'i, 1. [BACK]

7. For a discussion of the historical development of the concept of militarism, see Volker R. Berghahn, Militarism: The History of an International Debate, 1861 - 1979 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981). Stanislav Andreski has identified four major components in the common usage of the term militarism : militancy, an "aggressive foreign policy involving the readiness to resort to war"; militocracy, the "preponderance of the military in the state"; militarization, "extensive control by the military over social life, coupled with the subservience of the whole society to the needs of the army"; and militolatry, the "adulation of military virtues." Stanislav Andreski, Military Organization and Society , 2d ed. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1968), 184-86. [BACK]

8. Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences , ed. Edwin R. A. Seligman (reprint; New York: Macmillan Co., 1967), 12: 305. [BACK]

9. For example, Samuel Huntington uses praetorianism to refer to the politicization not only of the military but of other social groups such as students or the clergy. Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968), 194-95. [BACK]

10. Sutton, Provincial Militarism , 2-3. [BACK]

11. A number of scholars add further descriptive criteria to their definitions of warlordism, but accumulating case studies challenge their general applicability. For example, many scholars include the control of a well-defined territorial base in their definition of a warlord. See Lary, "Warlord Studies," Modern China 6, no. 4 (Oct. 1980): 441; Sheridan, Chinese Warlord , 8; Jerome Ch'en, "Defining Chinese Warlords and Their Factions," Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 31, no. 3 (1968): 578. There were cases, however, of warlords who operated "on the run" or without stable territorial bases. See Wou, Militarism , 270; Ch'i, 47. Likewise, Jerome Ch'en's attempt to link warlords to a specific conservative mentality, or to define them as being devoid of any sensitivity to nationalism, is continue

countered by Winston Hsieh's portrayal of the relatively progressive and nationalist attitudes held by one Guangdong warlord. See Ch'en, "Defining Chinese Warlords," 568-80; Winston Hsieh, "The Ideas and Ideals of a Warlord: Ch'en Chiung-ming (1878-1933)," Papers on China (Harvard University East Asia Research Center) 16 (1962): 198-252. [BACK]

12. See, e.g., Claude E. Welch, "Soldier and State in Africa," Journal of Modern African Studies 5, no. 3 (1967): 312-13. [BACK]

13. For a more detailed survey of the theories on military coups, see Staffan Wiking, Military Coups in Sub-Saharan Africa: How to Justify Illegal Assumptions of Power (Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, 1983), 16-69. Also see Donald L. Horowitz, Coup Theories and Officer's Motives: Sri Lanka in Comparative Perspective (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), 3-15. [BACK]

14. The work most closely associated with this approach is Morris Janowitz, The Military in the Political Development of New Nations (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964). [BACK]

15. Huntington, Political Order , 194. [BACK]

16. Samuel Decalo, Coups and Army Rule in Africa: Studies in Military Style (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976). [BACK]

17. Daiying, "Weishenma you zheduo neizhan" [Why there are so many civil wars], Zhongguo qingnian [China's Youth], Oct. 18, 1924. [BACK]

18. Luo Ergang was the first to propose this theory. See id., "Qingji bingwei jiangyou de qiyuan" [The origin of the personal armies of the Qing period], Zhongguo shehui jingji shi jikan [Collected papers on Chinese social and economic history] 5, no. 2 (1937). Franz Michael first elaborated further on it in his "Military Organization and Power Structure of China during the Taiping Rebellion," Pacific Historical Review 18 (Nov. 1949). [BACK]

19. Sutton, Provincial Militarism , vii.

20. Ibid., vii, 9. [BACK]

19. Sutton, Provincial Militarism , vii.

20. Ibid., vii, 9. [BACK]

21. Mao Tse-tung, 1: 65. [BACK]

22. McCord, "Recent Progress," 46-47. [BACK]

23. See, e.g., William W. Whitson, The Chinese High Command: A History of Communist Military Politics, 1927 - 1971 (New York: Praeger, 1973), 7. [BACK]

24. Wou, Militarism , 151-97. [BACK]

25. McCord, "Recent Progress," 46-47. [BACK]

26. See, e.g., C. Martin Wilbur, "Military Separation and the Process of Reunification under the Nationalist Regime, 1922-1937," in China's Heritage and the Communist Political System , vol. 1, book 1 of China in Crisis , ed. Ping-ti Ho and Tang Tsou (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), 217-18. [BACK]

27. For various expressions of this theory, see Lary, Region and continue

Nation , 12; Ch'en, "Defining Chinese Warlords," 567; Sutton, Provincial Militarism , 6; Pye, Warlord Politics , 8; Ralph Powell, The Rise of Chinese Military Power, 1895 - 1912 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1955), 336-37; Wilbur, 18-19. [BACK]

28. S. E. Finer, The Man on Horseback: The Role of the Military in Politics (New York: Praeger, 1962), 23. [BACK]

29. The Chinese Empire: A General and Missionary Survey , ed. Marshall Broomhall (London: Morgan & Scott, 1907), 164-74, 114-19; Julian Arnold, Commercial Handbook of China (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1919), 1: 20-21, 135-36, 402-3. [BACK]

30. Joseph W. Esherick, Reform and Revolution in China: The 1911 Revolution in Hunan and Hubei (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1976). Two other provincial case studies of Hunan that provide useful background information for the period under consideration in this study are Charlton M. Lewis, Prologue to the Chinese Revolution: The Transformation of Ideas and Institutions in Hunan Province, 1891 - 1907 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); and Angus W. McDonald, Jr., The Urban Origins of Rural Revolution: Elites and Masses in Hunan Province, China, 1911 - 1927 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1978). Although there have been no similar case studies focusing on Hubei as a whole, William Rowe's two-volume study of Hankou provides illuminating and detailed insights into some aspects of Hubei's society and economy. William T. Rowe, Hankow: Commerce and Society in a Chinese City, 1796 - 1889 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984); William T. Rowe, Hankow: Conflict and Community in a Chinese City, 1796 - 1895 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989). [BACK]

31. See Diana Lary's comments on regional studies and their problems in "Warlord Studies," 456-60. [BACK]

1. For a study of the Banner Army, see Wu Wei-ping, "The Development and Decline of the Eight Banners" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1969). [BACK]

2. The best source on the Green Standard Army is Luo Ergang's Lüying bingzhi [Treatise on the Green Standard Army] (1945; reprint, Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1984). [BACK]

3. At different times, the official number of Banner Army troops ranged from around 170,000 to almost 300,000 men, while the Green Standard Army varied from 590,000 to 660,000 men. The actual rather than official number of troops was often considerably less in both forces. Powell, 11-13. break [BACK]

4. Powell, 14-15; Franz Michael, "Regionalism in Nineteenth-Century China," introduction to Stanley Spector, Li Hung-chang and the Huai Army: A Study in Nineteenth-Century Chinese Regionalism (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964), xxxii-xxxiii; Raymond W. Chu and William G. Saywell, Career Patterns in the Ch'ing Dynasty: The Office of Governor-General (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, 1984), 21-23. [BACK]

5. Michael, "Regionalism," xxxii-xxxiii; Chu and Saywell, 20-21. [BACK]

6. Wu Wei-ping, 75-112. [BACK]

7. Michael, "Regionalism," xxxiii-xxxv; Luo Ergang, Xiangjun xinzhi [A new record of the Xiang Army] (Changsha: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1939), 2-15. [BACK]

8. T.F. Wade, "The Army of the Chinese Empire: Its Two Great Divisions, the Bannermen or National Guard, and the Green Standard or Provincial Troops; Their Organization, Locations, Pay, Condition, etc.," The Chinese Repository 10 (1851): 420-21. [BACK]

9. For studies of the Xiang Army and the Huai Army, see Luo Ergang's Xiangjun xinzhi and Wang Ermin's Huaijun zhi [Treatise on the Huai Army] (Taibei: Zhongyang yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo, 1967). Philip A. Kuhn's Rebellion and Its Enemies in Late Imperial China: Militarization and Social Structure, 1796 - 1864 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970) shows that the yongying represented a new form of military organization, correcting the tendency of many scholars to view them simply as enlarged militias. [BACK]

10. For a detailed discussion of the development of the lijin , see Luo Yudong, Zhongguo lijin shi [History of China's lijin ] (Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1936). [BACK]

11. The best discussion of the transformation of the mufu is Jonathan Porter, Tseng Kuo-fan's Private Bureaucracy (Berkeley: Center for Chinese Studies, University of California, Berkeley, 1972). Also see Kenneth Folsom, Friends, Guests and Colleagues: The Mu-fu System in the Late Ch'ing Period (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1968). [BACK]

12. Luo Ergang, "Qingji bingwei jiangyou," 235-37, 249-50; Luo Ergang, Xiangjun , 232-45. [BACK]

13. Michael, "Regionalism," i.

14. Ibid., xl-xli; Michael, "Military Organization," 479. [BACK]

13. Michael, "Regionalism," i.

14. Ibid., xl-xli; Michael, "Military Organization," 479. [BACK]

15. Luo Ergang, "Qingji bingwei jiangyou," 237. [BACK]

16. Michael, "Regionalism," xlii. [BACK]

17. See, e.g., Frederic Wakeman, Jr., The Fall of Imperial China (New York: Free Press, 1977), 165; Li Chien-nung, The Political History of China, 1840 - 1928 , trans. Ssu-yu Teng and Jeremy Ingalls (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1956), 93; Powell, 23; Ch'i, 12; Sheridan, Chinese Warlord , 6, 8; Lary, Region and Nation , 11; and Wilbur, 216. break [BACK]

18. Powell, 33-34; Wang Ermin, Huaijun , 385; Liu Kwang-ching, "The Limits of Regional Power in the Late Ch'ing Period: A Reappraisal," Tsing Hua Journal of Chinese Studies , n.s., 10, no. 2 (July 1974): 213. [BACK]

19. Powell, 35; Liu Kwang-ching, "Regional Power," 208, 213-16. [BACK]

20. Powell, 34; Liu Kwang-ching, "Regional Power," 217-18. [BACK]

21. David Pong, "The Income and Military Expenditures of Kiangsi Province in the Last Years (1860-1864) of the Taiping Rebellion," Journal of Asian Studies 26 (Nov. 1966): 49-65. [BACK]

22. Liu Kwang-ching, "Regional Power," 219-21. See also Chu and Saywell, 17-20. [BACK]

23. Wang Ermin, Huaijun , 377-86.

24. Ibid., 384-85. [BACK]

23. Wang Ermin, Huaijun , 377-86.

24. Ibid., 384-85. [BACK]

25. Liu Kwang-ching, "Li Hung-chang in Chihli: The Emergence of a Policy, 1870-75," in Approaches to Modern Chinese History , ed. Albert Feuerwerker, Rhoads Murphey, and Mary C. Wright (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1967), 68-105. [BACK]

26. Daniel H. Bays, "The Nature of Provincial Political Authority in Late Ch'ing Times: Chang Chih-tung in Canton, 1884-1889," Modern Asian Studies 4, no. 4 (Oct. 1970): 325-47. [BACK]

27. Livingston Tallmadge Merchant, "The Mandarin President: Xu Shichang and the Militarization of Chinese Politics" (Ph.D. diss., Brown University, 1983), 74-75. [BACK]

28. Sutton, Provincial Militarism , 6. [BACK]

29. This is exemplified in the traditional complementary expression wenwu shuangquan , "well-versed in both letters and martial arts." [BACK]

30. Liu Kwang-ching and Richard J. Smith, "The Military Challenge: The North-West and the Coast," in The Cambridge History of China , vol. 11, Late Ch'ing, 1800 - 1911 , part 2, ed. Denis Twitchett and John King Fairbank (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 204-8; Powell, 37-38. [BACK]

31. An excellent history of this naval program is John L. Rawlinson, China's Struggle for Naval Development, 1839 - 1895 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1967). [BACK]

32. A survey of the introduction of Western arms and a history of Chinese arsenals can be found in Wang Ermin, Qingji binggongye de xingqi [The rise of the munitions industry of the Qing period] (Taibei: Zhongyang yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo, 1978). In English, see Thomas L. Kennedy, The Arms of Kiangnan: Modernization and the Chinese Ordnance Industry, 1860 - 1895 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1978). [BACK]

33. Powell, 18-19; Liu and Smith, 208-9, 245. [BACK]

34. Powell, 41-42. Anita M. O'Brien, "Military Academies in continue

China, 1885-1915," in Perspectives on a Changing China , ed. Joshua A. Fogel and William T. Rowe (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1979), 157-58. [BACK]

35. Powell, 30-31. [BACK]

36. A brief history of the Self-Strengthening Army can be found in Powell, 60-71. For a detailed study of the Newly Created Army, see Liu Fenghan, Xinjian lujun [The Newly Created Army] (Taibei: Zhongyang yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo, 1967); also see Powell, 71-82. [BACK]

37. The best study of Yuan Shikai and the development of the Beiyang Army is Stephen R. MacKinnon, Power and Politics in Late Imperial China: Yuan Shi-kai in Beijing and Tianjin, 1901 - 1908 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1980). For an outline of the development of the Beiyang Army, see pp. 91-103. [BACK]

38. Powell, 134-35, 166-88.

39. Ibid., 288. A table of these units showing their locations and commanders in 1911 can be found in Edmund S. K. Fung, The Military Dimension of the Chinese Revolution (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1980), 263-64. [BACK]

38. Powell, 134-35, 166-88.

39. Ibid., 288. A table of these units showing their locations and commanders in 1911 can be found in Edmund S. K. Fung, The Military Dimension of the Chinese Revolution (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1980), 263-64. [BACK]

40. O'Brien, 158-69. [BACK]

41. Luo Ergang, "Qingji bingwei jiangyou," 249. [BACK]

42. Stephen R. MacKinnon, "The Peiyang Army, Yuan Shih-k'ai, and the Origins of Modern Chinese Warlordism," Journal of Asian Studies 32 (May 1973): 405-23; and MacKinnon, Power . [BACK]

43. MacKinnon, "Peiyang Army," 406. [BACK]

44. In a detailed study of Beiyang Army finances, Odoric Wou reaches a conclusion somewhat contrary to MacKinnon's. Wou shows that Yuan relied even more heavily on local funding than predecessors like Li Hongzhang. He suggests that by being less dependent on direct central funding, Yuan gained firmer control over his financial base and thus behaved even more like a "regional" leader. Odoric Y. K. Wou, "Financing the New Army: Yuan Shih-k'ai and the Peiyang Army, 1895-1907," Asian Profile 11, no. 4 (Aug. 1983): 339-56. This does not, however, necessarily challenge MacKinnon's contention that ultimately Yuan's control over his finances was dependent on court support. [BACK]

45. MacKinnon, Power , 221-22.

46. Ibid., 10. [BACK]

45. MacKinnon, Power , 221-22.

46. Ibid., 10. [BACK]

47. MacKinnon, "Peiyang Army," 422.

48. Ibid., 414-23. [BACK]

47. MacKinnon, "Peiyang Army," 422.

48. Ibid., 414-23. [BACK]

49. Sutton, Provincial Militarism , 2. [BACK]

50. Andrew Nathan, Peking Politics, 1918 - 1923: Factionalism and the Failure of Constitutionalism (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1976), 44. [BACK]

51. Powell, 144, 205, 245-46. break [BACK]

52. Ichiko Chuzo, "Political and Institutional Reform," in The Cambridge History of China , vol. 11, Late Ch'ing, 1800 - 1911 , part 2, ed. Denis Twitchett and John King Fairbank (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 384. [BACK]

53. Powell, 247-248; Wen Gongzhi, Zuijin sanshinian Zhongguo junshi shi [A military history of China in the past thirty years] (Shanghai: Taipingyang shudian, 1930), 1: 12-14. [BACK]

54. Powell, 173-75. [BACK]

55. From late 1894 to early 1896, Zhang held the post of governor-general at Nanjing. In late 1902, he returned to Nanjing for six months, and then was transferred to a Beijing post, before returning to Hubei in 1904. Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period (1644 - 1912 ), ed. Arthur W. Hummel (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1943), 27-31. [BACK]

56. Su Yunfeng, Zhongguo xiandaihua de quyu yanjiu: Hubei sheng, 1860 - 1916 [Regional research on China's modernization: Hubei Province, 1860-1916] (Taibei: Zhongyang yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo, 1981), 240; Powell, 69. [BACK]

57. Su Yunfeng, 242-44.

58. Ibid., 245-46; Powell, 219-22. [BACK]

57. Su Yunfeng, 242-44.

58. Ibid., 245-46; Powell, 219-22. [BACK]

59. A comparative chart of provincial military forces can be found in Shen Jian, "Xinhai geming qianxi woguo zhi lujun ji qi junfei" [Our nation's army and its military expenses on the eve of the 1911 Revolution], Shehui kexue [The Social Sciences] 2, no. 2 (Jan. 1937): 389. In southern and central China, only Jiangsu surpassed Hubei's 16,102-man New Army, with 25,682 men, while Sichuan had an equivalently sized force of 16,096 men. The next largest New Army was Yunnan's, with 10,977 men. None of the remaining provincial New Armies had above nine thousand men, while the smallest, that of Guizhou Province, had fewer than two thousand. [BACK]

60. He Dingdong, "Zhang Zhidong Huguang zongdu rennei zhi jianshu" [The achievements of Zhang Zhidong during his tenure as Huguang governor-general], Hubei wenxian [Hubei Documents] 65 (Oct. 10, 1982): 49; Powell, 70. [BACK]

61. Zhang Zhidong, Zhang Wenxiang gong quanji [The complete works of Zhang Zhidong] (Beijing: Chuxue jinglu, 1937), 44 juan : 13b-17a, 49 juan : 12b-15a. Qi Chucai, "Hubei xinjun bianlian jingguo" [The course of the organization and training of Hubei's New Army], in Wuhan wenshi ziliao [Wuhan cultural and historical materials], ed. Zhongguo renmin zhengzhi xieshang huiyi Wuhan shi weiyuanhui, wenshi ziliao yanjiu weiyuanhui [Research committee on cultural and historical materials, Wuhan City committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference], vol. 23 (Wuhan: Qingnian yinshuachang, 1986): 92. break [BACK]

62. Shen Jian, 373.

63. Ibid., 373-74, lists 7,262 men in Hubei's Green Standard Army in 1910. Shibao [Eastern Times], May 15, 1911, notes preparations for the Green Standard's final disbandment that June. At this point, only 2,800 Green Standard soldiers remained, including some remnant lianjun troops also slated for disbandment. [BACK]

62. Shen Jian, 373.

63. Ibid., 373-74, lists 7,262 men in Hubei's Green Standard Army in 1910. Shibao [Eastern Times], May 15, 1911, notes preparations for the Green Standard's final disbandment that June. At this point, only 2,800 Green Standard soldiers remained, including some remnant lianjun troops also slated for disbandment. [BACK]

64. Originally over twenty thousand yongying troops were gathered in Hubei during the midcentury rebellions, but by the late 1850s these forces had been reduced by a half. Su Yunfeng, 19. Shen Jian, 390, cites one source that lists Hubei's yongying before the Sino-Japanese War at only six thousand men. [BACK]

65. Shen Jian, 374, gives a figure of 7,600 men. Shao Baichang, "Xinhai Wuchang shouyi zhi qianyin houguo ji qi zuozhan jingguo" [The causes and effects of the 1911 Wuchang uprising and its military operations], Hubei wenxian 10 (Jan. 10, 1969): 20, gives a smaller figure of 2,500 men for Hubei's Patrol and Defense Forces. This figure appears to be based on official regulations that called for five "routes" of Patrol and Defense Forces in each province with a total of five hundred men per route. Thus this figure may not be an actual accounting of the size of Hubei's forces. [BACK]

66. Shen Jian, 373; Su Yunfeng, 244. [BACK]

67. Qian Shifu, Qingji zhongyao zhiguan nianbiao [Registry of important officials in the Qing period] (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1959), 193-222. [BACK]

68. Zhang Pengyuan, Zhongguo xiandaihua de quyu yanjiu: Hunan sheng, 1860 - 1916 [Regional research on China's modernization: Hunan Province, 1860-1916] (Taibei: Zhongyang yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo, 1983), 209. [BACK]

69. Shen Jian, 374, citing a 1910 source, gives the number of men in the 25th Mixed Brigade as 4,443. An organizational table of the 25th Mixed Brigade provided in another source gives the slightly higher figure of 4,755 men. Gesheng caizheng shuomingshu [Explanation of provincial finances], ed. Jingji xuehui [Economics study society], vol. 10 (Beijing, 1915), "Hunan quansheng caizheng shuomingshu" [Explanation of Hunan provincial finances], junzhengfei [military expenses], 86-97. [BACK]

70. Jingji xuehui, "Hunan quansheng caizheng shuomingshu," junzhengfei , 3-65. [BACK]

71. Shen Jian, 373, gives a total of 16,012 men for Hunan's Green Standard Army, based on a 1910 source. Another listing of officers and soldiers in Hunan Green Standard units for 1911 reflects further disbandment, with a total of only 12,033 men. Jingji xuehui, "Hunan quansheng caizheng shuomingshu," junzhengfei , 3-65. [BACK]

72. Zhang Pengyuan, 206. break

73. Ibid., 206-7.

74. Ibid., 206, estimates the number of Hunan Patrol and Defense troops in 1906 at around 12,000. Jingji xuehui, "Hunan quansheng caizheng shuomingshu," junzhengfei , 80-84, lists a total of 13,830 officers and men for 1911. Shen Jian, 374, citing a 1910 source, gives an even higher figure of 15,041 men. [BACK]

72. Zhang Pengyuan, 206. break

73. Ibid., 206-7.

74. Ibid., 206, estimates the number of Hunan Patrol and Defense troops in 1906 at around 12,000. Jingji xuehui, "Hunan quansheng caizheng shuomingshu," junzhengfei , 80-84, lists a total of 13,830 officers and men for 1911. Shen Jian, 374, citing a 1910 source, gives an even higher figure of 15,041 men. [BACK]

72. Zhang Pengyuan, 206. break

73. Ibid., 206-7.

74. Ibid., 206, estimates the number of Hunan Patrol and Defense troops in 1906 at around 12,000. Jingji xuehui, "Hunan quansheng caizheng shuomingshu," junzhengfei , 80-84, lists a total of 13,830 officers and men for 1911. Shen Jian, 374, citing a 1910 source, gives an even higher figure of 15,041 men. [BACK]

75. Zhang Pengyuan, 209. [BACK]

76. Powell, 154-55.

77. Ibid., 219-24. For example, in 1903 Zhang could not prevent the transfer of eight of Hubei's best New Army battalions to the control of the Liangguang governor-general to aid in the suppression of Guangxi rebels. Powell, 156. [BACK]

76. Powell, 154-55.

77. Ibid., 219-24. For example, in 1903 Zhang could not prevent the transfer of eight of Hubei's best New Army battalions to the control of the Liangguang governor-general to aid in the suppression of Guangxi rebels. Powell, 156. [BACK]

1. Fung, Military Dimension , 210-16.

2. Ibid. See also Edmund S. K. Fung, "Military Subversion in the Chinese Revolution of 1911," Modern Asian Studies 9, no. 1 (Feb. 1975): 103-23; Josef Fass, "The Role of the New-Style Army in the 1911 Revolution in China," Archiv Orientalni 30 (1962): 183-91; and Yoshihiro Hatano, "The New Armies," in China in Revolution: The First Phase, 1900 - 1913 , ed. Mary Clabaugh Wright (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968), 365-82. [BACK]

1. Fung, Military Dimension , 210-16.

2. Ibid. See also Edmund S. K. Fung, "Military Subversion in the Chinese Revolution of 1911," Modern Asian Studies 9, no. 1 (Feb. 1975): 103-23; Josef Fass, "The Role of the New-Style Army in the 1911 Revolution in China," Archiv Orientalni 30 (1962): 183-91; and Yoshihiro Hatano, "The New Armies," in China in Revolution: The First Phase, 1900 - 1913 , ed. Mary Clabaugh Wright (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968), 365-82. [BACK]

3. Hatano, 370, 382. [BACK]

4. Esherick, 146; Fung, "Military Subversion," 109; Fung, Military Dimension , 6. [BACK]

5. Eric A. Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics: Military Coups and Governments (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1977), 32-37. [BACK]

6. Huntington, Political Order , 193-94; Amos Perlmutter, The Military and Politics in Modern Times (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977), 99-100. [BACK]

7. Zhang Zhidong, 45 juan : 14a; 120 juan : 12a-14b. [BACK]

8. For example, besides ninety students selected by examination for entry into the 1909 class of the Hunan military primary school, thirty positions were reserved for the children of official families or outstanding New Army soldiers, with most actually going to the relatives of officials. Dai Fengxiang, Yang Chuanqing, and Chen Pengnan, "Hunan lujun xiaoxue" [The Hunan military primary school], HWZ, 2: 60-61. [BACK]

9. Da Qing Guangxu xinfaling [New laws of Guangxu of the great Qing dynasty] (Shanghai: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1908), 14 ce : 2a. [BACK]

10. Hatano, 373. [BACK]

11. Da Qing Guangxu xinfaling , 14 ce : 58b-59a. break [BACK]

12. Zhang Zhidong, 57 juan : 28a. [BACK]

13. For example, in 1898 Zhang proposed that literacy be required of all recruits for a new Western-trained unit he hoped to establish. Zhang Zhidong, 49 juan : 14a. Likewise, literacy was set as a requirement in recruiting standards promulgated by Zhang in 1904. Zhang Zhidong, 62 juan : 26a-26b. Memoirs of Hubei New Army soldiers also report Zhang's emphasis on literacy as a basic requirement for all recruits. See, e.g., Qi Chucai, 95. [BACK]

14. Zhang Zhidong, 57 juan : 28a. [BACK]

15. Hatano, 374. [BACK]

16. Morton Fried, "Military Status in Chinese Society," American Journal of Sociology 57 (Jan. 1952): 347-55. [BACK]

17. Marianne Bastid-Bruguiere, "Currents of Social Change," in The Cambridge History of China , vol. 11, Late Ch'ing, 1800 - 1911 , part 2, ed. Denis Twitchett and John King Fairbank (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 539-40. [BACK]

18. For example, in a 1904 ranking of military and civil positions a brigadier-general was placed equal in status to a provincial governor. Powell, 185. A 1909 table of precedence for military and civil officials in Fung, Military Dimension , 88, shows a similar ranking. [BACK]

19. Zhao Zongpo and Xia Jufang, Wu Luzhen (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1982), 13. For example, Zhao Hengti, a Hunan graduate of Japan's Army Officers' Academy, received a juren degree upon his return. Ou Jinlin, "Zhao Hengti zhuan" [A biography of Zhao Hengti] (unpublished manuscript, Changsha, 1982), 2. [BACK]

20. Powell, 150, 183. Zhang sent three grandsons to Japanese military academies. [BACK]

21. Zhang Zhidong, 49 juan : 12b-13a. [BACK]

22. Fung, Military Dimension , 23. [BACK]

23. Zhang Zhidong, 57 juan : 33a-34a. [BACK]

24. See Fung, Military Dimension , 89-99, for a discussion of the development of late Qing militarist thought. [BACK]

25. Shi Taojun, "Liushinian de wo" [My sixty years], HLZ, 1981, no. 2: 24. [BACK]

26. Just like Shi, Zhao Hengti, later Hunan military governor, cited nationalism as the main reason he gave up his original plans to study at a Japanese normal school in order to enroll in a military academy. Zhao Hengti, unpublished oral history, Modern History Institute, Academica Sinica, section 1. Another case can be seen with He Guoguang, an important Hubei military figure and eventually commander of the Guomindang's National Revolutionary 4th Army. Under the influence of a progressive instructor at a civil school in Shanghai, He decided that "to serve the country, it was necessary to continue

join the army." In 1904 He therefore enrolled in Sichuan's Military Primary School. He Guoguang, Bashi zishu [A biography at eighty] (n.p., 1964), 2-4. [BACK]

27. Zhu Zhisan, "Xinhai Wuchang qiyi qianhou ji" [A record of the period before and after the 1911 Wuchang uprising], XSHL, 3: 149. Wan Yaohuang, "Canjia xinhai Wuchang shouyi ji" [A record of my participation in the 1911 Wuchang uprising], Hubei wenxian 21 (Oct. 10, 1971): 5. Xiong Bingkun, "Xinhai Hubei Wuchang shouyi shiqian yundong zhi jingguo ji linshi fannan zhi zhushu" [A description of the course of the movement preceding the 1911 Wuchang uprising in Hubei and of the immediate rebellion], ZMKWW, 2 bian , 1 ce (1961): 272. [BACK]

28. Fung, Military Dimension , 24-25; Zhu Zhisan, 149; Wan Yaohuang, "Canjia," 5. One example of this was the case of Wan Yaohuang, an important Hubei military figure of the Republican period. Born into a scholar-official family in Hubei, Wan first received a classical education and then entered a modern-style civil primary school. In 1907, his family could no longer afford the tuition for this school and he enlisted in the Hubei New Army. He was then selected from the ranks as a government student in Hubei's Military Primary School. Wan later graduated from the Baoding Military Academy. Wan Yaohuang, unpublished oral history, Modern History Institute, Academica Sinica, section 1, parts 5, 7. [BACK]

29. "Zuotan xinhai shouyi" [Discussing the 1911 uprising], XSHL, 1: 2. For a similar observation, see Chen Xiaofen, "Xinhai Wuchang shouyi huiyi" [Memoir of the 1911 Wuchang uprising], XSHL, 1: 70. [BACK]

30. Li Pinxian, Li Pinxian huiyilu [The memoirs of Li Pinxian] (Taibei: Zhongwai tushu chubanshe, 1975), 3-4. After graduating from the Guangxi Military Primary School, Li went on to the Hubei Military Secondary School, and finally graduated from the Baoding Military Academy in 1914. Li served in both the Guangxi and Hunan armies and later became commander of the National Revolutionary 8th Army in the 1926 Northern Expedition. [BACK]

31. Zhang Zhidong, 120 juan : 17a-17b. [BACK]

32. Dai,Yang, and Chen, 60-61. [BACK]

33. Ernest Young, The Presidency of Yuan Shih-k'ai: Liberalism and Dictatorship in Early Republican China (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1977), 31; Fung, Military Dimension , 76. Sutton, Provincial Militarism , 13-51, has also shown the predominantly elite backgrounds of officers in the late Qing Yunnan New Army. [BACK]

34. Sutton, Provincial Militarism , 69, for example, notes that this recruitment policy was followed in Guizhou but not in Yunnan, where officers were recruited from the literati but soldiers continued to be drawn from the peasantry. Yunnan seems to have been an exception continue

in this regard, particularly in the southern provinces. Edward Rhoads has also noted a high educational level among New Army soldiers in Guangdong Province. Edward J.M. Rhoads, China's Republican Revolution: The Case of Kwangtung, 1895 - 1913 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1975), 190. [BACK]

35. Chen Xiaofen, 70. [BACK]

36. Mao Changran, "Changsha jiushiersui renrui Mao Shujun xiansheng xingshu" [A brief biography of Changsha's ninety-two-year-old gentleman, Mr. Mao Shujun], Hunan wenxian [Hunan documents] 8 (Apr. 1970): 65. [BACK]

37. Mary Backus Rankin, Elite Activism and Political Transformation in China: Zhejiang Province, 1865 - 1911 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1986). [BACK]

38. Lucian W. Pye, "Armies in the Process of Political Modernization," in The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries , ed. John J. Johnson (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1962), 77-78. [BACK]

39. One example was Cai E, a Hunan-born military officer who gained fame leading Yunnan's New Army in support of the 1911 Revolution and against Yuan Shikai's imperial plans in 1916. Cai originally studied under the reformer Liang Qichao in Changsha. After following Liang into exile in Japan after the suppression of the Hundred Days' Reform, Cai joined other disillusioned reformers in an abortive 1900 uprising in Hubei led by Tang Caichang. After this failure, Cai returned to Japan, where he began military studies. In 1904 Cai graduated from Japan's Army Officers' Academy and was posted to Yunnan's New Army. Howard L. Boorman, Biographical Dictionary of Republican China (New York: Columbia University Press, 1967-71), 3: 287. [BACK]

40. Esherick, 19; Powell, 236. [BACK]

41. Zhao and Xia, 1-25. [BACK]

42. Chün-tu Hsüeh, Huang Hsing and the Chinese Revolution (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961), 10. [BACK]

43. Guo Fengming, "Qingmo minchu lujun xuexiao jiaoyu (1896-1916)" [Late Qing and early Republican military school education (1896-1916)] (Ph.D. diss., Zhongguo wenhua xuexiao, 1974), 432. Guo provides a detailed discussion of the patriotic and revolutionary activities of military students (pp. 432-55). [BACK]

44. Zhao and Xia, 24-36; Zhu Hezhong, "Ouzhou Tongmenghui jishi" [A record of the facts of the European Tongmenghui], XGHL, 6: 3. For a discussion of Wu's reformist leanings, see Ernest P. Young, "The Reformer as a Conspirator: Liang Ch'i-ch'iao and the 1911 Revolution," in Approaches to Modern Chinese History , ed. Albert Feuerwerker, Rhoads Murphey, and Mary C. Wright (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1967), 251-57. break [BACK]

45. Jiang Zuobin, Jiang Zuobin huiyilu [The memoirs of Jiang Zuobin] (Taibei: Zhuanji wenxue chubanshe, 1967), 29-30. Li Pinxian, 6, also notes the importance of Japanese-trained instructors in spreading revolutionary ideas in Guangxi's Military Primary School. [BACK]

46. Dai, Yang, and Chen, 62. [BACK]

47. "Zuotan," 3. [BACK]

48. Li Jianhou, "Wuchang shouyi qianhou yishi baze" [Recollections of eight events from before and after the Wuchang uprising], XGHL, 2: 80-81; Xie Shiqin, "Shugong suibi" [Jottings by Shugong], JSZ, 25: 494. [BACK]

49. Li Lianfang, Xinhai Wuchang shouyiji [A record of the Wuchang uprising] (Wuchang: Hubei tongzhiguan, 1947), 4a-4b; Zhang Nanxian, Hubei geming zhizhilu [The known record of the revolution in Hubei] (1945; Shanghai: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1946), 55; Zhang Yukun, "Wenxueshe Wuchang shouyi jishi" [A record of the facts of the Literary Society's uprising in Wuchang], in Zhongguo jindaishi ziliao xuanji [Selected materials on China's modern history], ed. Yang Song and Deng Liqun (Beijing: Sanlian shudian, 1954), 618-19. [BACK]

50. See, e.g., Fung, Military Dimension , 119-44; or Esherick, 150-58. In Chinese, see Zhang Yufa, Qingji de geming tuanti [Revolutionary organizations of the Qing period] (Taibei: Zhongguo yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo, 1975), 540-617. [BACK]

51. Fan Hongxun, "Rizhihui" [The Society for the Daily Increase in Knowledge], XSHL, 1: 79. [BACK]

52. Yang Yuru, Xinhai geming xianzhuji [A first account of the 1911 Revolution] (Beijing: Kexue chubanshe, 1958), 18; Li Lianfang, 12a. Many revolutionary soldiers felt that civilians were less disciplined and thus more likely to attract official attention to revolutionary activities. See, e.g., Li Liuru, Liushinian de bianqian [Changes in the past sixty years] (Beijing: Zuojia chubanshe, 1962), 1: 143-46. This source was written as a "historical novel," but Li Liuru was an active participant in Hubei's early revolutionary organizations. His accounts of discussions among revolutionary activists, although no doubt not accurate as verbatim records, probably reflect their real concerns. [BACK]

53. Xiong Bingkun, "Xinhai," 275. [BACK]

54. Li Lianfang, 10a-10b; Zhang Yukun, 624-25; Li Liuru, Liushinian de bianqian , 1: 145-46. [BACK]

55. Li Lianfang, 12a; Zhang Nanxian, 152; Wan Yaohuang, "Canjia," 6. [BACK]

56. For a history of this society in English, see Edmund Fung's "The Kung-chin-hui: A Late Ch'ing Revolutionary Society," Journal of Oriental Studies 11, no. 2 (July 1973): 193-206. Also see Esherick, 153-58; and Zhang Yufa, 617-56. [BACK]

57. Hu Zushun, Wuchang kaiguo shilu [A factual record of the continue

Wuchang founding of the Republic at Wuchang] (Wuchang: Jiuhua yinshuguan, 1948), 1: 12a-13a, 17a-18a; Li Baizhen, "Gongjinhui cong chengli dao Wuchang qiyi qianxi de huodong" [The activities of the Forward Together Society from its founding to the eve of the Wuchang uprising], XGHL, 1: 506. [BACK]

58. Li Baizhen, 514-19. [BACK]

59. Zhang Yukun, 639, gives the highest estimate of Literature Society membership at five thousand men. A more realistic estimate might be the figure of three thousand given in a  newspaper  account shortly after the revolution. Xinhai geming [The 1911 Revolution], ed. Zhongguo shixuehui [Chinese Historical Association] (Shanghai:Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1957), 5: 4. Sources generally agree on a figure of around two thousand members for the Forward Together Society. See Guo Jisheng, "Xinhai geming qianhou wode jingli" [My experience before and after the 1911 Revolution], XSHL, 1: 96; and Wan Hongjie, "Xinhai geming yunniang shiqi de huiyi" [A memoir of the period of ferment of the 1911 Revolution], XSHL, 1: 125. A combination of these figures gives a range of five to seven thousand men as the total membership of these two societies. A lower figure of four to six thousand New Army members makes some allowance for the civilian membership of the Forward Together Society and for the fact, noted by Guo Jisheng, that many men were members of both organizations. [BACK]

60. Liu Fenghan, "Lun xinjun yu xinhai geming" [A discussion of the New Army and the 1911 Revolution], Hubei wenxian 73 (Oct. 10, 1984): 15. [BACK]

61. Wen Chuheng, "Xinhai geming shijian ji" [A record of the practice of the 1911 Revolution], XSHL, 1: 52. [BACK]

62. Li Lianfang, 6a-6b. [BACK]

63. Tong Meicen, "Xinhai geming qianhou de Changsha" [Changsha before and after the 1911 Revolution], Hunan wenxian 9, no. 3 (July 1981): 59-60; Xie Jieseng and Wen Fei, "Hunan xinhai guangfu shilue" [A biographical sketch of Hunan's 1911 recovery], ZMKWW, 2 bian , 3 ce (1962): 8-10; "Guangfu Changsha zhi huiyi" [Meetings called for Changsha's recovery], ZMKWW, 2 bian , 3 ce , 13. [BACK]

64. Yu Shao, "Hunan guangfu ji sishijiu biao yuan-E" [Hunan's recovery and the 49th Regiment's aid to Hubei], XGHL, 2: 159. [BACK]

65. Yan Youfu, "Huiyi Chen Zuoxin" [Remembering Chen Zuoxin], HWZ, 3: 188-89, 194-96. According to one account, Chen claimed to have joined the Tongmenghui in 1906. Lu Ying, "Xinhai geming Hunan guangfu huiyi suoji" [A fragmented memoir of Hunan's recovery in the 1911 Revolution], HLZ, 1958, no. 1: 126. However, some Tongmenghui members noted that Chen was not a member of any revolutionary organization. See, e.g., Zou Yongcheng, continue

"Zou Yongcheng huiyilu" [Memoirs of Zou Yongcheng], JSZ, 1956, no. 3: 102. Yan Youfu, "Huiyi Chen Zuoxin," 197, notes that Chen was not above making exaggerated claims of connections to top Tongmenghui leadership to add to his authority. His claim of Tongmenghui membership might fit into this category. There is little question that Chen considered himself an adherent of the Tongmenghui, even if he was not formally enrolled. [BACK]

66. Yu Shao, 160; Zou Yongcheng, 102. [BACK]

67. Yu Shao, 160. [BACK]

68. Xie and Wen, 8-12; "Guangfu Changsha," 17-18; Zou Yongcheng, 95-96. [BACK]

69. Zou Yongcheng, 95. [BACK]

70. Tong Meicen, "Xinhai geming," 60. [BACK]

71. Zou Yongcheng, 96. [BACK]

72. Xie and Wen, 10. [BACK]

73. Lu Ying, 121-22; Xie and Wen, 11-12. [BACK]

74. See esp. chs. 4 and 5 in Esherick. [BACK]

75. The uprising was originally planned for October 6, but a lack of preparations and official precautions forced a delay. Li Lianfang, 73b-74b. Sources differ on the alternate date set for the uprising. See Li Shiyue, Xinhai geming shiqi lianghu diqu de geming yundong [The revolutionary movement in the Hunan-Hubei area during the era of the 1911 Revolution] (Beijing: Sanlian shudian, 1957), 68-69. [BACK]

76. Yang Yuru, 54-60; Xiong Bingkun, "Wuchang qiyi tan" [A discussion of the Wuchang uprising], in Xinhai geming , ed. Zhongguo shixuehui, 5: 86-88. [BACK]

77. For an English account of the Wuchang uprising, see Vidya Prakash Dutt, "The First Week of Revolution: The Wuchang Uprising," in Wright, 391-404. A more detailed account, including information on the Hanyang and Hankou uprisings, is given in He Juefei and Feng Tianyu, Xinhai Wuchang shouyi shi [A history of the 1911 Wuchang uprising] (Wuhan: Hubei renmin chubanshe, 1985), 179-208. [BACK]

78. Shao Baichang, 17-20. [BACK]

79. For details on the course of the revolution in different Hubei localities, see He and Feng, 339-75.

80. Ibid., 354-57. [BACK]

79. For details on the course of the revolution in different Hubei localities, see He and Feng, 339-75.

80. Ibid., 354-57. [BACK]

81. Yang Yuru, 71-77; Xinhai geming shiliao [Historical materials on the 1911 Revolution], ed. Zhang Guogan (Shanghai: Longmen lianhe shuju, 1958), 60-65. [BACK]

82. He Xifan received a brigade commander's position as a reward for his defection. Yang Yuru, 63; Xinhai , ed. Zhang Guogan, 76-77; Xinhai Wuchang shouyi renwu zhuan [Biographies of personalities from the 1911 Wuchang uprising], ed. He Juefei (Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1982), 2: 655. break [BACK]

83. A list of seventeen lower officers (mainly company or platoon commanders) who joined the revolt in its first days is given in Cao Yabo, Wuchang geming zhenshi [True history of the Wuchang revolution] (Shanghai: Shanghai zhonghua shuju, 1930), 2: 79. Examples of higher officers who hid or fled during the uprising but returned to accept positions in the revolutionary army or government include the 8th Division regiment commanders Yang Kaijia and Zhang Jingliang and battalion commanders Du Xijun and Jiang Mingjing. Wu Xinghan, "Wuchang qiyi sanri ji" [Three-day record of the Wuchang uprising], in Xinhai geming , ed. Zhongguo shixuehui, 5: 84; He Juefei, 2: 645, 654, 659. [BACK]

84. Xiong Bingkun, "Wuchang," 88, 91; Xinhai , ed. Zhang Guogan, 71-72, 74-75; Yang Yuru, 62. [BACK]

85. Xiong Bingkun, "Wuchang," 94; Xinhai , ed. Zhang Guogan, 77. [BACK]

86. Cao Yabo, 2: 35-36. Attending this meeting with Tang were both vice presidents of the Provincial Assembly, as well as several other assemblymen. Hu Zushun, 1: 45a. [BACK]

87. Cao Yabo, 2: 36; Xinhai , ed. Zhang Guogan, 82-83; Yang Yuru, 71-72. [BACK]

88. Xie Shiqin, 492; Cao Yabo, 2: 14. [BACK]

89. Hu Zushun, 1: 43b-44a; Li Zhongguang, "Huiyi wo fu Li Yuanhong er san shi" [Remembering two or three things about my father, Li Yuanhong], XGHL, 6: 303. [BACK]

90. Hu Zongduo, unpublished oral history, Modern History Institute, Academica Sinica, section 1B. [BACK]

91. Wan Hongjie, "Xinhai geming," 126; Hu Zushun, 1: 44a. [BACK]

92. Li's ability to make a good impression on foreigners can be seen in an interview with Li shortly after the revolution reported in Edwin J. Dingle, China's Revolution, 1911 - 1912: A Historical and Political Record of the Civil War (1912; New York: Haskell House, 1972), 3-46. [BACK]

93. The reasons for Li's selection as Hubei's military governor have been a point of historical controversy. The interpretation followed by most Chinese historians in the past, influenced by later revolutionary antagonism to Li, saw Li as the candidate of constitutionalists, who supported him in a plot to prevent the establishment of revolutionary power. More recent studies have concluded that revolutionary support was equally or more important in his selection. See, e.g., Esherick, 182-89; Lin Zengping, "Li Yuanhong yu Wuchang shouyi" [Li Yuanhong and the Wuchang uprising], Jianghan luntan [Jianghan Forum], 1981, no. 4 (Apr. 1981): 92-97; and Pi Mingxiu, "Li Yuanhong yu Wuchang shouyi" [Li Yuanhong and the Wuchang uprising], in Xinhai geming lunwenji [Collected essays on the 1911 Revolution], ed. Wuhan shifan xueyuan lishixi [History department, continue

Wuhan Normal College] (Wuhan: Wuhan shifan xueyuan, 1981), 299-314. [BACK]

94. Cao Yabo, 2: 33-35, 69, 80-82. Delegations of support from civilian leaders seemed to have the most positive effect on Li's decision. See Li Guoyong, "Li Guoyong zishu" [Autobiography of Li Guoyong], JSZ, 1961, no. 1: 499-500. [BACK]

95. For the texts of proclamations issued under Li's name, see Cao Yabo, 2: 45-68. [BACK]

96. Shen Yunlong, Li Yuanhong pingzhuan [A critical biography of Li Yuanhong] (Taibei: Wenhai chubanshe, 1972), 15. [BACK]

97. Zhang Zhiben, "Liu Gong, Li Yuanhong—xinhai shouyi zhi yi" [Liu Gong, Li Yuanhong—a remembrance of the 1911 uprising], Zhongwai zazhi [China-West magazine] 12, no. 4 (Oct. 1972): 6; Yang Yuru, 75, 80; Hu Zushun, 1: 45a; Xinhai , ed. Zhang Guogan, 90. [BACK]

98. Yan Youfu, "Xinhai Hunan guangfu de pianduan huiyi" [A partial memoir of Hunan's 1911 recovery], HWZ, 1: 107; Yang Yuru, 35-36. [BACK]

99. Deng Jiesong, "Xinhai geming zai Hunan suojian" [Events witnessed in the 1911 Revolution in Hunan], XGHL, 2: 204; Yu Shao, 161. [BACK]

100. Only one battalion and one company out of Hunan's six infantry battalions were left in the Changsha area, along with engineering and artillery battalions and transportation and cavalry companies. Ten Patrol and Defense battalions were called to Changsha to replace the transferred units. October 21 orders for the removal of the New Army artillery battalion, and the continuing arrivals of Patrol and Defense forces, hastened the decision for an immediate uprising. Yu Shao, 160-62; Xie Jieseng, 13; "Guangfu Changsha," 19. [BACK]

101. Yan Youfu, "Xinhai," 108-9; Xie Jieseng, 14. [BACK]

102. Zixuzi [Tang Qianyi], "Xiangshi ji" [A record of Hunan affairs], in Su Kanshi et al., Hunan fanzheng zhuiji [A reminiscence of Hunan's return to righteousness] (Changsha: Hunan renmin chubanshe, 1981), 63. [BACK]

103. Peng Chuheng, "Hunan guangfu yundong shimo ji" [A complete record of Hunan's revolutionary movement], ZMKWW, 2 bian , 3 ce , 4; Zixuzi, 62-63. [BACK]

104. Yan Youfu, "Xinhai," 110-11; Zhou Zhenlin, "Tan Yankai tongzhi Hunan shimo" [Tan Yankai's rule over Hunan from beginning to end], HWZ, 2: 2. [BACK]

105. Zou Yongcheng, 103-6; "Guangfu Changsha," 19-20; Xie Jieseng, 14-15. [BACK]

106. Zixuzi, 75; Yu Shao, 161-63; Xie Jieseng, 15. [BACK]

107. Yu Shao, 163-64; Deng Jiesong, 204-5. break [BACK]

108. Peng Chuheng, 6; Yu Shao, 165; Guo Xiaocheng, "Hunan guangfu jishi" [A record of Hunan's recovery], in Xinhai geming , ed. Zhongguo shixuehui, 6: 136-37. [BACK]

109. Some participants of this meeting considered asking Tan to serve as military governor before the uprising, and soon after the uprising revolutionary proclamations appeared under Tan's name. Zixuzi, 64-65. According to one account, Tan declined a New Army nomination for the military governor's post before this meeting. Guo Xiaocheng, 136. [BACK]

110. Yu Shao, 165. Within the Forward Together Society Jiao's right to Hunan's military governorship was agreed upon as early as 1907. Li Baizhen, 503. For a biography of Jiao Dafeng, see Feng Ziyou, "Hunan dudu Jiao Dafeng" [Hunan's military governor Jiao Dafeng], in Feng Ziyou, Geming yishi [Reminiscences of the revolution] (Chongqing: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1943-45), 2: 280-86. [BACK]

111. Zou Yongcheng, 109. [BACK]

112. Zixuzi, 65-66; Yu Shao, 165. [BACK]

113. Zhou Zhenlin, 2-3; Yu Shao, 167; Deng Jiesong, 207; Zixuzi, 66-67. [BACK]

114. Yan Youfu, "Guanyu Jiao Dafeng er san shi" [Two or three things concerning Jiao Dafeng], XGHL, 2: 212-13; Deng Jiesong, 207; Zhou Zhenlin, 3. [BACK]

115. Esherick, 178. [BACK]

116. Esherick, 177-78, 204-6, 212-15. [BACK]

117. Yan Youfu, "Xinhai," 113-15; Su Kanshi, "Hunan fanzheng zhuiji" [A reminiscence of Hunan's return to righteousness], in Su Kanshi, Hunan , 15. According to the senate's charter, all orders issued by the military governor required approval by the senate before implementation. While the military governor could return legislation proposed by the senate for further discussion, he was required to implement this legislation if it again passed the senate with a simple majority. The senate's charter and a list of its members can be found in ZMKWW, 2 bian , 3 ce , 29-30. [BACK]

118. Tan Renfeng, Shisou paici [The verses of Shisou] (Lanzhou: Gansu renmin chubanshe, 1983), 113-14; Zixuzi, 68-69; Yang Shiji, Xinhai geming qianhou Hunan shishi [A factual history of Hunan before and after the 1911 Revolution] (Changsha: Hunan renmin chubanshe, 1958), 202-4. [BACK]

119. The main leaders of the conspiracy have usually been identified as Chen Binghuan, former vice president of the Provincial Assembly; Huang Zhongji, the younger brother of the slain Huang Zhonghao; and Xiang Ruicong, the Japanese-educated commander of the New Army's artillery battalion. Zou Yongcheng, 114; Zhou Zhenlin, 3; Yang Shiji, 200. break [BACK]

120. Yang Shiji, 204-5. [BACK]

121. Liu Wenjin provided Jiao's introduction to revolutionaries in the Hunan army, and was influential in persuading them to accept his leadership. Xie Jieseng, 12-13. [BACK]

122. Yu Shao, 165, 167. [BACK]

123. Tong Meicen, "Xinhai geming," 62. Yang Shiji, 200. According to one account, Jiao agreed to promote Mei to brigade commander, but only under a division commander whose original rank before the uprising had been beneath Mei's. Mei found this too demeaning and demanded an independent brigade commander's position, which Jiao refused. Yan Youfu, "Xinhai," 118. [BACK]

124. Tong Meicen, "Xinhai geming," 62. [BACK]

125. Zou Yongcheng, 114; Feng Ziyou, 284. [BACK]

126. Zou Yongcheng, 115-16; Yan Youfu, "Xinhai," 116-17; Feng Ziyou, 284-85. [BACK]

127. Despite the promotion he had received from Jiao Dafeng, Yu Qinyi was closely tied to the faction that supported Tan Yankai for military governor. Before Jiao's assassination Yu had co-sponsored a proposal to hold new elections for the military governor's post. When Mei Xing approached Yu with the idea of the assassination, Yu gave neither his approval nor his disapproval, an ambiguity that Mei took as tacit agreement. Zixuzi, 68-69. [BACK]

128. Cao Yabo, 2: 214. [BACK]

129. Cao Yabo, 2: 214-15; Zixuzi, 69; Guo Xiaocheng, 139. [BACK]

130. HJDJ, 296. [BACK]

131. Huang Muru, "Xinhai Xiangxi guangfu jingguo" [The course of West Hunan's 1911 recovery], HWZ, 1: 129-35. [BACK]

132. Zixuzi, 71-72. [BACK]

133. Huntington, Political Order , 194. [BACK]

1. Lary, Region and Nation , 12. [BACK]

2. One of the most detailed expositions of this view can be found in this passage by Lucian Pye:

With the Revolution of 1911, the destruction of the formal monolithic structure of government was complete . . .. Few formally organized groups closely related to the interests of the total society, or even of particular segments of the society, were directed to, and capable of, seeking political power to carry out specific policies. The only organizations that were in any sense able to seek political power were those in the military field . . .. military commanders had control of the means of violence to achieve political and economic objectives. Political power therefore gravitated to these men because society was devoid of other groups that could effectively contend for governmental control. (Pye, Warlord Politics , 8.) break

Donald Sutton gives a similar description of the conditions that led to the military's political dominance in China:

Clearly military intervention took place because of the changing relationship between military and civil institutions. While modern and semimodern [military] forces drew their strength from their affluence and their effectiveness as formal organizations, the collapse of the imperial bureaucracy in the revolution permanently weakened civil power, because no new forms of legitimation or mass parties or articulated interest groups could recreate comparable solidarity. (Sutton, Provincial Militarism , 6.)

3. Pye, "Armies," 84-85. [BACK]

4. Lary, "Warlord Studies," 442-43. [BACK]

5. James Sheridan, for example, sees Yuan Shikai's "military dictatorship" as having temporarily delayed the start of the warlord era until his death, when "the reality of provincial militarism that had been growing behind the facade of unity for several decades now emerged unobscured." James E. Sheridan, China in Disintegration: The Republican Era in Chinese History, 1912 - 1949 (New York: Free Press, 1975), 51-54, 58. [BACK]

6. Sutton, Provincial Militarism , 5. [BACK]

7. A particularly useful provincial case study of the relationship between late Qing reforms and the rise of provincialism, though presented in terms of "regionalism," is provided by Charlton Lewis in Prologue to the Chinese Revolution . [BACK]

8. Young, Presidency , 20.

9. Ibid., 32. [BACK]

8. Young, Presidency , 20.

9. Ibid., 32. [BACK]

10. The original rationale for the formation of military governments, and the nomenclature used for them, originated in Tongmenghui policies that stressed the initial military struggle needed to overthrow the Qing dynasty. See "Junzhengfu xuanyan" [The inaugural manifesto of the military government] and "Junzhengfu yu ge guominjun zhi tiaojian" [Articles of the military government and citizens' armies] adopted by the Tongmenghui in 1906, cited in Zou Lu, "Zhongguo Tongmenghui" [China's Tongmenghui], in Xinhai geming , ed. Zhongguo shixuehui, 2: 13-21. [BACK]

11. In Sichuan, civilian elites opposed a military-sponsored proposal for the separation of military and civil administration, seeking a stronger government capable of dealing with secret society disturbances. Ch'en, Military-Gentry Coalition , 21. [BACK]

12. Finer, 75-80. [BACK]

13. Cao Yabo, 2: 49-50; Li Jiannong, "Wuhan geming shimo ji" [A complete record of the Wuhan revolution], in Xinhai geming , ed. Zhongguo shixuehui, 5: 176-77; Xinhai geming , ed. Zhongguo shixuehui, 6: 170; Zixuzi, 93. Stress on the anti-Manchu goals of the revolution was also useful in allaying foreign fears of revolutionary dis- soft

order, as seen in an interview given by Li Yuanhong in November 1911. Dingle, 44-45. [BACK]

14. For details on the course of the revolution in different Hubei and Hunan localities, see Esherick, 192-98, 210-12; HJDJ, 296-98, 308-9; He and Feng, 339-75. [BACK]

15. Esherick, 198. [BACK]

16. Cao Yabo, 2: 50-51. [BACK]

17. Fu Juejin and Liu Zilan, Hunan zhi tuanfang [Hunan's militia] (Hunan sheng zheng fu, 1933), 13-14, 17. [BACK]

18. Li Shiyue, 106-10. [BACK]

19. Esherick, 212-13. [BACK]

20. "Guanyu Tang Xiangming zai Xiang baoxing de huiyi—zuotan fangwen jilu" [Memoirs concerning Tang Xiangming's atrocities in Hunan—a symposium and interview record], HWZ, 8: 70. [BACK]

21. Zixuzi, 71-72; Shibao , Apr. 9, 1912. [BACK]

22. Pao Chao Hsieh, The Government of China (1644 - 1911 ) (1925; New York: Octagon Press, 1978), 307-8. [BACK]

23. He and Feng, 251; Shibao , Aug. 4, 1912, Mar. 11, 1913. [BACK]

24. Zhu Zhisan, 157-60. The same pattern can be seen in magistrate lists in Hunan local histories. See, e.g., Jiahe xiantuzhi [Jiahe County illustrated gazetteer] (1931), 22: 22; Liling xianzhi [Liling County gazetteer] (1948), 3, zhengzhizhi : 26; Shimen xianzhi gao [Shimen County draft gazetteer] (1942), lizhizhi , 10. [BACK]

25. He and Feng, 230-32; Yang Yuru, 80-81. [BACK]

26. Su Kanshi, "Hunan," 18-19. [BACK]

27. He and Feng, 233-35; Yang Yuru, 81-83. [BACK]

28. Zixuzi, 65. [BACK]

29. Hubei's three military ministries were eventually reduced to a single Ministry of Military Affairs. In early 1912, the Ministry of Government Organization was downgraded to a bureau ( ju ), and new ministries were established for education and industry. Finally, in February 1912 Hubei's eight "ministries" ( bu ) were redesignated "departments" ( si ). WQDZX, 394, 408. For brief histories of Hubei's ministries/departments, see He and Feng, 248-70. Hunan added a Department of Industry in January 1912 to bring its departments up to eight. For a list of Hunan department heads, see Zixuzi, 97-98, and Esherick, 240-41. [BACK]

30. Provincial salt and grain intendants were also directly appointed by the court. In the reforms of the last years of the Qing era, a centrally appointed provincial commissioner of foreign affairs was also added. New intendants of police and industrial affairs were likewise centrally appointed, but they were made jointly responsible to the governor and central ministries. Pao, 292, 299-302, 310, 317. [BACK]

31. Shibao , Feb. 5, 1914. [BACK]

32. Yang Yuru, 80, specifically notes the importance of public continue

meetings in political decision-making in this period. References to such meetings are frequent in contemporary accounts of the 1911 Revolution. [BACK]

33. John Fincher, "Political Provincialism and the National Revolution," in Wright, 189-98. [BACK]

34. WQDZX, 428-29; Hu Zushun, 94a-95b. [BACK]

35. Zixuzi, 95; United Kingdom, Parliament, Parliamentary Papers , 1912-1913, vol. 62, China , no. 3 (1912), "Further Correspondence Respecting the Affairs of China (December 1911-March 1912)," Cd. 6447, p. 146. [BACK]

36. USDS 893.00/1541 (Jameson, Jan. 17, 1913); Shibao , Feb. 24, Mar. 11, Apr. 6, and Apr. 7, 1913; Zhang Pengyuan, 155-63. [BACK]

37. For a discussion of early Republican political parties, see Ernest Young, "Politics in the Aftermath of Revolution: The Era of Yuan Shih-k'ai, 1912-1916," in The Cambridge History of China , vol. 12, Republican China, 1912 - 1949 , part 1, ed. Denis Twitchett and John King Fairbank (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 217-25. [BACK]

38. Shibao, Apr. 13, 1913; USDS 893.00/1621 (Jameson, Mar. 26, 1913). [BACK]

39. Esherick, 217, suggests that the provincial regimes were unviable precisely because of their elite nature. [BACK]

40. The actual size of the early Republican electorate is a matter of some debate. Young, Presidency , 114, prefers a low figure of 4 to 6 percent, while a higher figure of 10 percent is given by John H. Fincher, Chinese Democracy: The Self-Government Movement in Local, Provincial and National Politics, 1905 - 1914 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1981), 223. [BACK]

41. Liu Pengfo, "Tan Yankai yu minguo zhengju" [Tan Yankai and the political scene under the Republic] (Ph.D. diss., Zhongguo wenhua xueyuan, 1978), 7-8, 185-86; Yan Youfu, "Tan Yankai de shengping" [A brief account of the life of Tan Yankai], HWZ, 10: 139-41. [BACK]

42. Liu Pengfo, 14-47. [BACK]

43. Zhou Zhenlin, 3. [BACK]

44. Tan's detractors also claim that Mei received financial payments from Tan in reward for his role in the coup. Tan Renfeng, 114; Yan Youfu, "Xinhai," 118; Lu Ying, 124-25; Zhong Boyi, unpublished oral history, Modern History Institute, Academica Sinica, section 5. [BACK]

45. Zixuzi, 69; Tao Juyin, "Changsha xinhai guangfu houde pianduan jianwen" [Fragments of information on Changsha after the 1911 recovery], HWZ, 2: 94; Tong Meicen, "Xinhai geming," 63. [BACK]

46. HJDJ, 307-8; Guo Xiaocheng, 140; Yan Youfu, "Tan Yankai," 143. [BACK]

47. Su Kanshi, "Hunan," 20. Also see Zou Yongcheng, 114. break [BACK]

48. Young, "Reformer," 239-40. [BACK]

49. Esherick, 213-15. [BACK]

50. Liu Pengfo, 14-16, 45-46. [BACK]

51. Zhou Zhenlin, 3-4. [BACK]

52. Zixuzi, 82; Tong Meicen, "Canzan Tan Yankai caibing zhi jingguo" [My experience counseling Tan Yankai's troop disbandment], Hunan wenxian 6, no. 4 (Oct. 1978): 78. [BACK]

53. Shibao , Mar. 10, 11, and 31, 1913; Zou Yongcheng, 120. [BACK]

54. Li Shiyue, 117-18. [BACK]

55. For example, Huang Xing wired his support to Tan after the March 1913 coup. Shibao , Mar. 26, 1913. Zou Yongcheng, a prominent revolutionary activist who led secret-society forces to establish a branch military government at Baoqing during the revolution, was also unsuccessful in attempts to convince Huang and Hubei revolutionaries to approve a military campaign against Tan. Zou Yongcheng, 117. [BACK]

56. Zou Yongcheng, 120; Shibao , Apr. 14, 1913. [BACK]

57. Tao Juyin, "Changsha," 95. [BACK]

58. Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai" [Remembering Tan Yankai], WZX, 5: 90; Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming qianhou huiyi pianduan" [A partial memoir of the period surrounding the 1911 Revolution], XGHL, 1: 84. [BACK]

59. Tao Juyin, "Changsha," 95-96. [BACK]

60. Esherick, 240-41. [BACK]

61. A good example would be the head of the Department of Civil Government, Long Zhang. Long was a juren from a prominent family who was involved in a wide range of late Qing reform activities, from modern education and industrial promotion to constitutionalist and railroad-protection movements. He was also head of the Hunan Chamber of Commerce and a member of the Provincial Assembly. As principal of the Mingde School in 1904, Long was especially sympathetic to revolutionary teachers like Huang Xing. Long hid Huang in his own home to aid his escape after the exposure of a revolutionary plot. Cao Yabo, 1: 1-2; Esherick, 43, 51, 74-75, 92, 166. [BACK]

62. Su Kanshi, "Hunan," 19. [BACK]

63. Qiu Ao, "1912 nian chouzu Guomindang Xiangzhibu banli xuanju de jingguo" [My experience organizing the Hunan branch of the Nationalist Party and handling elections in 1912], HWZ, 2: 11. [BACK]

64. Esherick, 239. One contemporary political attack on Zhou Zhenlin suggested that Tan was forced to defer to him in all orders and appointments. Although clearly an exaggeration, this charge reveals that Zhou held sufficient power to attract this kind of attack. WQDZX, 3: 259. [BACK]

65. Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 92; Yan Youfu, "Tan Yankai," 143. break [BACK]

66. Li Chien-nung, 277. [BACK]

67. Zixuzi, 106. [BACK]

68. The best English biography of Song Jiaoren is K. S. Lieu's Struggle for Democracy: Sung Chiao-jen and the 1911 Chinese Revolution (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1971). [BACK]

69. Qiu Ao, "1912 nian," 10-15. [BACK]

70. Young, "Politics," 217-19; Li Chien-nung, 278-79. [BACK]

71. Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 93. [BACK]

72. Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 86. [BACK]

73. Li Chunxuan, "Xinhai shouyi jishi benmo" [A complete record of the events of the 1911 uprising], XSHL, 2: 175. [BACK]

74. Lu Zhiquan and Wen Chuheng, "Ji Zhan Dabei ban 'Dajiangbao' he Hankou junzheng fenfu" [Remembering Zhan Dabei's management of the Yangzi News and the Hankou branch military government], XGHL, 2: 50-53. Also see Esherick, 218-21. [BACK]

75. Li Chunxuan, 205-6. Hu Egong, "Wuchang shouyi sanshiwuri ji" [A thirty-day diary of the Wuchang uprising], Hubei wenxian 21 (Oct. 10, 1971): 70-71; 22 (Jan. 1, 1972): 26-29. Also see Esherick, 225-28. [BACK]

76. Because of his position, Liu had been promised the military governorship in the event of an uprising. Since he was absent at the time of the Wuchang uprising, he was passed over. The Office of General Supervision was therefore partially created as a consolation prize. The office was finally abolished in April 1912. He Juefei, 1: 159; Shibao , Apr. 22, July 5, and Sept. 24, 1912. [BACK]

77. Li Chunxuan, 223; Xie Shijin, 497. [BACK]

78. Cao Yabo, 2: 368. [BACK]

79. Li Lianfang, 116a-117a; Wan Yaohuang, oral history, section 1, part 13. [BACK]

80. The lack of respect shown to Li by his subordinates was commonly noted in the early months of his rule. Wan Yaohuang, oral history, section 1, part 16; USDS 893.00/1477 (Jameson, Sept. 29, 1912). [BACK]

81. Cai Ji-ou, Ezhou xueshi [The bloody history of Hubei] (Shanghai: Longmen lianhe shuju, 1958), 174-75; Zhang Zhiben, unpublished oral history, Modern History Institute, Academica Sinica, section 4, part 1; Wan Yaohuang, oral history, section 1, part 13. [BACK]

82. Five Hubei natives were appointed to vice-ministerial positions, but none were Wuchang uprising participants. He and Feng, 461. [BACK]

83. Yang Yuru, 229-32; WQDZX, 1: 429. [BACK]

84. Wan Hongjie, "Minshe chengli yu Li-Yuan goujie" [The founding of the People's Society and the collusion between Li and Yuan], XGHL, 2: 106-7; Yong Shu, "Li Yuanhong yu xinhai geming" [Li Yuanhong and the 1911 Revolution], Hubei wenxian 61 (Oct. 10, 1981): 7-8; Cai Ji-ou, 174. break [BACK]

85. Wan Hongjie, "Minshe," 107; Li Liuru, "Wenxueshe yu Wuchang qiyi jilue" [A brief account of the Literature Society and the Wuchang uprising], XGHL, 1: 305-14; Zhu Zongzhen, "Zhang Zhenwu an ji qi zhengzhi fengchao" [The Zhang Zhenwu case and its political controversy], Xinhai geming shi congkan [Collected Articles on the History of the 1911 Revolution], 1982, no. 4 (Oct. 1982): 23-24. [BACK]

86. For example, Sun used his position to prevent Jiang Yiwu from succeeding to the post of commander-in-chief after Huang Xing's departure. Tan Renfeng, 122; He and Feng, 438-39. [BACK]

87. Shibao , Mar. 5, 1912; Cai Ji-ou, 174-75; He and Feng, 473-76. [BACK]

88. He and Feng, 477-78; Shibao , Mar. 5 and 13, July 19, 1912, Apr. 19, 1913; He Juefei, 1: 103-5; Li Baizhen, 511; Pan Kangshi, "Pan Yiru zizhuan" [Autobiography of Pan Yiru], XSHL, 3: 39. [BACK]

89. Shibao , Mar. 6, 1912. [BACK]

90. The best example is the Ministry (later Department) of Justice whose first head was Zhang Zhiben, a Tongmenghui activist. In January 1913 Zhang was replaced by Zhao Yanwei, vice head of the Hubei branch of the Nationalist Party. Zhang Zhiben, oral history, section 2, part 2-3; Shibao , Jan. 30, 1913. [BACK]

91. For example, Cai Jimin, who succeeded Zeng Guangda as head of the Department of Military Affairs, was a former member of both the Literature and Forward Together societies. He was nonetheless one of Li's most loyal supporters. Shibao , Mar. 21, 1912; He Juefei, 1: 271-73. [BACK]

92. Shibao , Mar. 13, 1912. [BACK]

93. USDS 893.00/1249 (Greene, Feb. 21, 1912). [BACK]

94. USDS 893.00/1477 (Jameson, Sept. 29, 1912). [BACK]

95. Esherick, 234, follows the conventional view of Chinese historians in this regard. One common problem with this view is an unwarranted assumption that Li's position as head of the People's Society shows that he played an important role in its founding or was its guiding force. [BACK]

96. Cai Ji-ou, 210-212; Hu Zongduo, section 1B; Zhang Zhiben, "Liu Gong," 9. [BACK]

97. Shibao , May 17, 1912. [BACK]

98. Li Xiping, "Wuchang shouyi jishi" [A record of the Wuchang uprising], XSHL, 4: 83-84. [BACK]

99. Shibao , July 19, 22, and 30, 1912. [BACK]

100. Shibao , July 8 and 29, 1912. [BACK]

101. Shibao , July 25, 28, and 29, 1912; USDS 893.00/1426 (Greene, July 22, 1912); He and Feng, 479-80. [BACK]

102. For a detailed examination of the Zhang Zhenwu case and its continue

political ramifications, see Zhu Zongzhen, 23-37. Also see XGHSX, 629-54. [BACK]

103. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong zhengshu [The official correspondence of Vice President Li] (Shanghai: Gujin tushuju, 1915), 13: 8a-9a, 11b-12a, 14a-17a. [BACK]

104. The enmity between Li and Zhang dated back to the Wuchang uprising, when Zhang had called for Li Yuanhong's execution. Yang Yuru, 78; Cao Yabo, 2: 41. [BACK]

105. XGHSX, 646; Hu Zongduo, section 1B. [BACK]

106. USDS 893.00/1621 (Jameson, Mar. 26, 1913). [BACK]

107. Shibao , Sept. 27 and 30, Oct. 3, 1912. [BACK]

108. XGHSX, 609-10, 627-28, 636-37, 665; Shibao , July 23, Sept. 30, Oct. 6, and Oct. 22, 1912; Li Shiyue, 111-12. [BACK]

109. Shibao , Sept. 30, 1912, Apr. 13, 1913. [BACK]

110.  Newspapers  reported that the South Lake uprising participants interpreted this appeal as a promise of personal advancement and profit, and that many joined simply for the opportunity to plunder. Shibao , Sept. 14, 27, and 30, 1912. [BACK]

111. According to the U.S. consul, Li's passage from nominal to real power was most apparent during the period from the execution of Zhang to the suppression of the South Lake uprising. One manifestation of this change was the greater respect Li received from subordinates who had been openly rude to him in the past. USDS 893.00/1477 (Jameson, Sept. 29, 1912), 893.00/1574 (Greene, Feb. 4, 1913). [BACK]

112. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 9: 10b-14a.

113. Ibid., 13: 1b.

114. Ibid., 13: 4a. [BACK]

112. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 9: 10b-14a.

113. Ibid., 13: 1b.

114. Ibid., 13: 4a. [BACK]

112. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 9: 10b-14a.

113. Ibid., 13: 1b.

114. Ibid., 13: 4a. [BACK]

115. See, e.g., Li Shiyue, 112-13; and Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa tongzhi shiqi shihua [A historical narrative of the period of Beiyang warlord rule] (Beijing: Sanlian shudian, 1957-61), 3: 21. [BACK]

116. Xiao Zhizhi and Ren Zequan, "Li Yuanhong zai xinhai geminghou de zhuanbian chutan" [A preliminary exploration of Li Yuanhong's transformation after the 1911 Revolution], in Jinian xinhai geming qishi zhounian xueshu taolunhui lunwenji [Collected articles of the seventieth-year commemorative conference on the 1911 Revolution], ed. Zhonghua shuju bianjibu [China Books editorial committee] (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1983), 3: 1620-21, 1623. [BACK]

117. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 9: 22b; Shibao , Apr. 19, 20, and 22, 1912. [BACK]

118. Shibao , May 5, 1912. For the Tongmenghui argument against the establishment of civil governors, see the wire by Li Liejun, the Tongmenghui military governor of Jiangxi, in Shibao , Apr. 22, 1912. [BACK]

119. Shibao , Apr. 22, May 5 and 11, 1912. [BACK]

120. Shibao , May 16, June 6 and 19, and July 2 and 19, 1912. break [BACK]

121. Hubei gongbao (Hubei Gazette), July 6, 1912. [BACK]

122. Shibao , Aug. 4, 1914. [BACK]

123. Shibao , July 25, 1912. [BACK]

124. Shibao , July 3 and 25, 1912. [BACK]

125. Shibao , July 19 and Aug. 18, 1912. [BACK]

126. USDS 893.00/1408 (Greene, July 9, 1912). [BACK]

127. Shibao , Oct. 3, 1912. [BACK]

128. Shibao , Sept. 28 and Oct. 7, 1912. [BACK]

129. In one case, Li and Liu simultaneously appointed different men to head a new National Assembly Election Preparation Office. Though the office clearly lay in the realm of civil administration, Liu's man was forced to resign. Li was commonly known to have made some department head appointments, and Li's influence was often formally noted by his co-signature on appointments. Shibao , Oct. 3, 1912. [BACK]

130. Shibao , Oct. 18 and 24, 1912. [BACK]

131. Shibao , Oct. 31 and Nov. 12, 1912. [BACK]

132. He Juefei, 2: 616; Shibao , June 24 and Nov. 12, 1912. [BACK]

133. Shibao , Nov. 17, 1912. [BACK]

134. USDS 893.00/1574 (Greene, Feb. 4, 1913). [BACK]

135. Shibao , Jan. 25, 1913. In the case cited here, Li canceled a currency redemption plan approved by Xia. Li also continued to have the final word in important appointments. For example, in the appointment of Wuchang's police chief, Xia presented Li with a list of candidates for his decision. Shibao , Feb. 10, 1913. [BACK]

136. For example, in early 1913 the head of the personnel section of the Department of Internal Affairs filed a complaint against Rao for violating regulations requiring the appointment of magistrates from approved candidate lists. For fear of offending Li, Xia removed the section head rather than initiate an investigation against Rao. Shibao , Mar. 11, 1913. [BACK]

137. Shibao , Jan. 24, 1913. [BACK]

138. Shibao , Feb. 20, 1913. [BACK]

139. Shibao , Oct. 1, 1913. [BACK]

140. Ch'en, Military-Gentry Coalition , 26. [BACK]

141. Sutton, Provincial Militarism , 96-100. [BACK]

1. Shibao , Feb. 8, 1912; Zixuzi, 70. [BACK]

2. USDS 893.00/1478 (Greene, Oct. 1, 1912). [BACK]

3. Shibao , Jan. 20, 1912; Zhang Zhiben, oral history, section 2, part 2; He and Feng, 242. break [BACK]

4. Hu Zushun, 58b-60a. This source provides a list of brigade and regiment commanders. [BACK]

5. He and Feng, 310-317, briefly describe twenty-two of these irregular forces. [BACK]

6. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 8: 15a; Shibao , Mar. 17 and June 21, 1912. [BACK]

7. Shibao , Oct. 21, 1912. Tan seems to ignore Hunan's Green Standard forces, which were largely unaffected by the revolution, in this accounting. Tan's estimate of Hunan's postrevolutionary forces is lower than most other estimates. One report in January 1912 claimed that there were fifty to sixty thousand troops in Changsha alone. USDS 893.00/1222 (Washburn, Apr. 6, 1912). A  newspaper  report on provincial troop strengths in mid 1912 also gives a higher estimate for Hunan of ninety thousand men. Shibao , June 21, 1912. [BACK]

8. Cai Ji'ou, 194-202, gives a short description of each division. Also see Hu Zushun, 54a; He and Feng, 243, 245. [BACK]

9. USDS 893.20/19 (Reeves, June 26, 1912). On the strength of New Army units, see Appendix. There was considerable variation in size from one division to the next, including some that may have come close to New Army strength. For example, as late as October 1912, after some disbandment had taken place, the 7th Division still had over ten thousand men. Shibao , Oct. 26, 1912. [BACK]

10. The independent cavalry and artillery units were eventually expanded into brigades while engineering and transportation units were designated as regiments. Shibao , Oct. 3 and 26, 1912. [BACK]

11. Cai Ji'ou, 194; He and Feng, 243. [BACK]

12. The student army was no doubt left alone in expectation of demobilization to allow its members to return to their studies. For an account of the student army, see Zhou Kezhi and Chen Ruimi, "Xinhai geming shiqi Hubei xueshengjun shimoji" [The complete record of the Hubei student army in the period of the 1911 Revolution], XGHL, 2: 55-61. A number of irregular units were organized into a military police unit that remained in existence until July 1913. Shibao , July 30, 1913. [BACK]

13. Hu Zushun, 55a; Shibao , Feb. 25, 1912. [BACK]

14. The Training Corps was granted special privileges (including double pay) because it returned to Hubei too late to benefit from the promotions received by most other New Army soldiers. Wan Yaohuang, oral history, section 1, part 15; Shibao , Mar. 5, Aug. 4, and Oct. 26, 1912; Cai Ji'ou, 205; "Ejun jiaodaotuan lishi" [History of the Training Corps of the Hubei army], WQDZX, 1: 212-17. [BACK]

15. Cai Ji'ou, 202; Shibao , July 5, 1912. [BACK]

16. Shibao , July 5, 1912; He Juefei, 2: 502-3. [BACK]

17. Li Tiancai was a Yunnan native who rose from the ranks of an continue

old-style force to a brigade command during campaigns along China's southwestern border. On the eve of the 1911 Revolution, Li was ordered to take his brigade from Guangdong to Sichuan to help suppress the railroad-protection movement. The revolution broke out while Li was in transit, and he brought his force over to the revolutionary cause. Gao Guanghan, "Xi'nan junfa hunzhanzhong de Li Tiancai" [Li Tiancai amid the tangled wars of the southwestern warlords], in Xi'nan junfashi yanjiu congkan [Collected research on the history of the southwestern warlords], ed. Xi'nan junfashi yanjiuhui [Association for Research on the History of the Southwestern Warlords], vol. 2 (Guiyang: Guizhou renmin chubanshe, 1983), 186-88; Shibao, Aug. 26, 1913, May 6, 1915. [BACK]

18. Zixuzi, 80, 86-87; USDS 893.00/1493 (Greene, Oct. 8, 1912); Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 84. Officially a sixth division was supposed to be created from the 11th and 12th Brigades, but it never became fully operational. Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 80. [BACK]

19. Zixuzi, 89-90. [BACK]

20. USDS 893.00/1493 (Greene, Oct. 8, 1912); Shibao , Oct. 21, 1912. [BACK]

21. Zixuzi, 71; Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 78-79; Nie Qide, unpublished oral history, Modern History Institute, Academica Sinica, section 4; Shibao , June 8 and Oct. 21, 1912. [BACK]

22. Wang Zhengya gained military experience as a Qing local official in bandit-suppression campaigns. On this basis Tan asked Wang to gather Patrol and Defense soldiers and other troops that had previously served under him to assist in the siege of Jingzhou. Zhou Chuande, "Xiangwujun Jingzhou zhanshi" [Military history of the Hunan army at Jingzhou], WQDZX, 2: 125-27; Zixuzi, 77. [BACK]

23. Wen Gongzhi, 2: 310. [BACK]

24. Li Tiansong and Chen Zhenlian, "Hubei junzhengfu chuqide caizheng cuoshi" [The early financial measures of the Hubei military government], Jianghan luntan , 1983, no. 10 (Oct. 1983): 70. [BACK]

25. Zixuzi, 76-77; Shibao , Jan. 20, 1912. [BACK]

26. Shibao , Jan. 20, Feb. 8, and June 21, 1912. [BACK]

27. Zixuzi, 105. [BACK]

28. Zixuzi, 99-100, reports that Hunan's 1912 military expenditures were nearly four times those of 1911 (some two million taels). Shen Jian, 401, the source used for Table 1, gives a higher figure of 3,733,739 taels for these 1911 expenses. Zixuzi's lower figure may have been based on Hunan's New Army expenses, which Shen Jian cites at 2,460,082 taels for 1911. Shen Jian's higher figure includes expenditures for old and new style troops as well as military schools, arsenals, fortifications, and other miscellaneous military expenses. Shen Jian, 396-97. break [BACK]

29. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 10: 12b. Also see Shibao , June 21, 1912. [BACK]

30. Shibao , Apr. 20, 1913. [BACK]

31. Li and Chen, 69-71; He and Feng, 470. [BACK]

32. Esherick, 248. [BACK]

33. Zixuzi, 99-105; Tao Juyin, "Changsha," 94-95; Shibao , Apr. 20 and Oct. 9, 1912. [BACK]

34. Esherick, 247-48. [BACK]

35. Ji was a Hubei military-school graduate and a member of the Society for the Daily Increase in Knowledge who lost his position as company commander in the Hubei New Army in 1906 when he was implicated in an uprising plot. After serving a short prison term, Ji participated in several revolutionary plots in other provinces before returning to Hubei after the outbreak of the Wuchang uprising. Prior to his appointment as pacification commissioner, Ji served briefly as a regiment commander in the revolutionary army defending Hankou. He Juefei, 1: 34-35. [BACK]

36. Mao Ba, "Xiangyang guangfu ji" [A record of the recovery of Xiangyang], JSZ, 1955, no. 4: 108-10; Liang Zhonghan, "Wo canjia geming de jingguo" [My participation in the revolution], XSHL, 2: 33. [BACK]

37. Shibao , Feb. 26 and 28, 1912; Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 7: 8b-9a, 12a, 14b. [BACK]

38. Liang Zhonghan, 35. [BACK]

39. For Tang Xizhi's case, see Li Yi, "Jing-Yi-Shi-He guangfu ji" [A record of the recovery of Jingzhou, Ichang, Shinan, and Hefeng], in Xinhai geming , ed. Zhongguo shixuehui, 5: 259-60. For Zhang Guoquan's case, see Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 5: 1a-1b; Mao Ba, 108-9; Shibao , July 5, 1912. [BACK]

40. Su Yunfeng, 247. [BACK]

41. Cai Ji'ou, 195, 199. [BACK]

42. Cai Ji'ou, 168-70, 195-97; He Juefei, 2: 654; Shibao , Mar. 22, 1912. Cai Ji'ou cites another revolutionary, Wang Xianzhang, as succeeding to Zhang's post before Du. He Juefei, 2: 363-64, shows that this is an error. Zhang's brigade commander, Wang Huaguo, was acting division commander for a short period before Du assumed command. [BACK]

43. Cai Ji'ou, 198; He Juefei, 1: 298-99; Li Shiyue, 114-15. [BACK]

44. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 8: 16b. [BACK]

45. United Kingdom, Parliament, Parliamentary Papers , 1912-1913, vol. 62, China , no. 3 (1912), "Further Correspondence Respecting the Affairs of China (December 1911-March 1912)" (Jordan, Dec. 27, 1911), Cd. 6447, pp. 63-64. [BACK]

46. Zixuzi, 81.

47. Ibid.; Shibao , Jan. 20 and Feb. 8, 1912. break [BACK]

46. Zixuzi, 81.

47. Ibid.; Shibao , Jan. 20 and Feb. 8, 1912. break [BACK]

48. He Guoguang, unpublished oral history, Modern History Institute, Academica Sinica, section 4. [BACK]

49. Tao Juyin, "Changsha," 93-94; He and Feng, 242. [BACK]

50. Zixuzi, 67. [BACK]

51. Cai Ji'ou, 200; He Juefei, 2: 368. [BACK]

52. He and Feng, 243.

53. Ibid., 244. [BACK]

52. He and Feng, 243.

53. Ibid., 244. [BACK]

54. Yu Shao, 175. [BACK]

55. Cao Yabo, 2: 95. [BACK]

56. Zixuzi, 81. [BACK]

57. Esherick, 242. [BACK]

58. For example, the commander of Hubei's Training Corps, Chen Zhenfan, was a company commander and revolutionary representative in Hubei's 31st Regiment who was elected to his command after the flight of the regiment's commander when it rose in support of the revolution in Sichuan. Ding Zhenhua, "Ji Ejun sha Duan Fang yu hui yuan Wuchang" [A record of the Hubei army's assassination of Duan Fang and its return to aid Wuchang], XGHL, 2: 101-2; Shibao , Mar. 5, 1912. [BACK]

59. Zixuzi, 81. [BACK]

60. Shibao , Feb. 5, 1914. [BACK]

61. Zixuzi, 81; USDS 893.00/1303 (Johnson, Mar. 30, 1912); Shibao , Apr. 23, 1912. [BACK]

62. Shibao , Mar. 19, 1912. [BACK]

63. For example, there was an unsuccessful mutiny by troops at Shashi led by junior officers seeking to overthrow their brigade and regiment commanders. Shibao , Sept. 26, 1912. [BACK]

64. Xinhai , ed. Zhang Guogan, 199. [BACK]

65. In Hunan this resentment was directed against the educational world, which provided many officials in Hunan's new government, and resulted in conflicts between soldiers and students. Jiaoyu zazhi [Education Magazine] 4, no. 4 (July 1912): 29. In Hubei this resentment surfaced as an undercurrent of military opposition to Liu Xinyuan's assumption of the civil governorship. Shibao , July 9, 1912. [BACK]

66. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 9: 10b-14a. [BACK]

67. Zhang Pengyuan, 155. [BACK]

68. Shibao , July 8, 1912. [BACK]

69. WQDZX, 3: 258-60; Shibao , Apr. 21 and 22, 1912; Zixuzi, 95. [BACK]

70. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 8: 16b. [BACK]

71. Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 84. [BACK]

72. Shibao , Mar. 6,1912. [BACK]

73. Shibao , Mar. 13 and 31, 1912; Cai Ji'ou, 176; Wan Yaohuang, oral history, section 1, part 15. break [BACK]

74. Shibao , May 6, July 15 and 22, 1912. Following this, the head of the Department of Military Affairs, Cai Jimin, also announced that members of Hubei's military administration should follow the same principles. He therefore resigned his membership in the Republican Party and asked the members of his staff to do the same. Shibao , Aug. 4, 1912. [BACK]

75. XGHSX, 665. [BACK]

76. Li himself made note of these repeated orders in early 1913. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 18: 7a. [BACK]

77. Shibao , July 15, 1912. [BACK]

78. Liang Zhonghan, 36. [BACK]

79. Shibao , May 11, 1912. [BACK]

80. Shibao , Aug. 23 and 26, 1912; XGHSX, 647-49. [BACK]

81. Shibao , Sept. 27 and 30, 1912. [BACK]

82. Shibao , Feb. 8, 1912. [BACK]

83. Zixuzi, 82. [BACK]

84. Zhao Hengti, sections 1-2; Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 77; Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 85. [BACK]

85. Shibao , Mar. 1, 1912. [BACK]

86. Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 70-71, 77-79, 84-85.

87. Ibid., 85.

88. Ibid.; Zhao Hengti, section 2; Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 77-78. [BACK]

86. Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 70-71, 77-79, 84-85.

87. Ibid., 85.

88. Ibid.; Zhao Hengti, section 2; Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 77-78. [BACK]

86. Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 70-71, 77-79, 84-85.

87. Ibid., 85.

88. Ibid.; Zhao Hengti, section 2; Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 77-78. [BACK]

89. Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 77-78, 81.

90. Ibid., 80. [BACK]

89. Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 77-78, 81.

90. Ibid., 80. [BACK]

91. Zhang Qihuang, Duzhitang conggao [Collected manuscripts from the Duzhitang] (reprint; Taibei: Wenhai chubanshe, 1967): 681-84; Chen Yuxin, "Hunan huidang yu xinhai geming" [Hunan's secret societies and the 1911 Revolution], WZX, 34: 130; Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 78-80. [BACK]

92. Chen Yuxin, 130; Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 79. [BACK]

93. Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 78, 81, provides the pay and bonus figures given here but does not mention pensions. Other sources citing these pensions differ on their terms. USDS 893.00/1478 (Greene, Oct. 1, 1912) notes that soldiers were given three months' pay with a pension of fifty to sixty taels stretched out over a year and a half. Zixuzi, 91-92, provides a list of pension amounts for officers and men, and notes that the pension period was nine years for officers and three years for common soldiers. [BACK]

94. Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 16. [BACK]

95. Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 78. Zixuzi, 100, estimated the final cost of the disbandment program at over 1,700,000 taels. [BACK]

96. Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 79, 81.

97. Ibid.; Hunan gongbao [Hunan Gazette], Sept. 21 and 27, 1912; Shibao , Sept. 6, 1912. break [BACK]

96. Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 79, 81.

97. Ibid.; Hunan gongbao [Hunan Gazette], Sept. 21 and 27, 1912; Shibao , Sept. 6, 1912. break [BACK]

98. Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 78-79, 81; Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 85-86. [BACK]

99. Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 81; Zixuzi, 82. [BACK]

100. Zixuzi, 82. [BACK]

101. Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 81.

102. Ibid., 82; USDS 893.00/1478 (Greene, Oct. 1, 1912); Shibao , Oct. 3, 1912. [BACK]

101. Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 81.

102. Ibid., 82; USDS 893.00/1478 (Greene, Oct. 1, 1912); Shibao , Oct. 3, 1912. [BACK]

103. Shibao , Oct. 21, 1912; Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 81; Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 86. [BACK]

104. Hunan zhengbao [Hunan Government Bulletin], Nov. 23, 1912. [BACK]

105. Shibao , Feb. 28, Mar. 6, Mar. 10, and Mar. 26, 1913. [BACK]

106. Shibao , Oct. 21, 1912; Hunan zhengbao , Oct. 30, 1912; Zixuzi, 88. [BACK]

107. Zixuzi, 87-88. The commander of the Capital Guard Corps, Ren Dingyuan, had been a Patrol and Defense commander under Zhang in southern Hunan. Chen Yuxin, 130. [BACK]

108. Shibao , Jan. 21 and Apr. 23, 1912; Hunan zhengbao , Oct. 30, 1912. [BACK]

109. Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 86-89; Shibao , Apr. 21 and May 6, 1913. [BACK]

110. Zhao Hengti, section 3. [BACK]

111. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 6: 8b-9a; 10: 12a. According to New Army standards, a company was to contain 126 soldiers. Fung, Military Dimension , 22. [BACK]

112. Shibao , June 19, 1912. [BACK]

113. Shibao , Aug. 11, 1912; XGHSX, 656-58. [BACK]

114. Shibao , Feb. 24, 1913. [BACK]

115. Shibao , June 5, 1912. This account does not specify the exact amount of this pension, but a similar organization disbanded later, which was said to have received the same terms, was given ten strings of cash a month for three years, and an increasingly lower amount in following years. Shibao , Oct. 29, 1912. [BACK]

116. For example, the Training Corps approached Li Yuanhong several times with disbandment terms, first seeking the same nine-year pension offered to the Blood Pledge Society, then requesting a settlement including one month's severance pay, fifty yuan for traveling expenses, and a six-year pension. In November 1912, Li agreed to nine-year pensions, but delayed the Corps's disbandment until March 1913. Shibao , Aug. 4 and 23, 1912; "Ejun jiaodaotuan lishi," 217. [BACK]

117. Shibao , July 20 and Oct. 25, 1912. According to a unit-by-unit enumeration in Shibao , Oct. 26, 1912, the Hubei army at this time consisted of 6,513 officers, 38,488 soldiers, and 15,221 service continue

personnel ( fuyi ), for a total of 60,222 men. The eight divisions contained 29,551 men. A New Army division contained 10,436 men, or 83,488 for eight divisions. Fung, Military Dimension , 21. [BACK]

118. Lu Zuzhen, "E gemingjun po tuiwu yu Chen Zuohuang, Wang Yaodong, Peng Jilin lieshi shilue" [The experience of the Hubei revolutionary army's forced disbandment and a brief account of the martyrs Chen Zuohuang, Wang Yaodong, and Peng Jilin], XGHL, 2: 91. [BACK]

119. Shibao , June 19, 1912. The retirement pay offered at this time was too low to provide much incentive, and was increased in early 1913, for example raising a platoon commander's bonus from 150 to 400 yuan. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 17: 9b. [BACK]

120. XGHSX, 655; Shibao , Oct. 25, 1912. [BACK]

121. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 16: 5a. In October 1912, the Hubei army still had 6,513 officers. The eight regular army divisions had 4,604 officers, averaging about 575 officers per division. Although this number was insufficient for a full New Army division, which required 748 officers, only 480 would have been needed for the divisional staff and two infantry brigades that formed most of Hubei's divisions at this time. Shibao , Oct. 26, 1912; Fung, Military Dimension , 21. [BACK]

122. Shibao , July 1, 5, 6, and 24, 1912. [BACK]

123. Shibao , Sept. 24, 1912; Cai Ji'ou, 202-4. [BACK]

124. Shibao , Mar. 27, 1913. [BACK]

125. Shibao , Jan. 30, Feb. 14, 21, and 24, Mar. 28, 1913; Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 17: 9b. [BACK]

126. Shibao , Feb. 24 and Apr. 24, 1913; Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 16: 5a, 17: 9b. [BACK]

127. Shibao , Jan. 14, 1913; Cai Ji'ou, 197. Du showed a remarkable ability to weather political changes by holding this post for the next fifteen years under a number of different regimes. [BACK]

128. Shibao , July 20, 1912, Mar. 11, Apr. 10 and 20, 1913. [BACK]

129. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 9: 13a-13b. [BACK]

130. Shibao , June 19, 1912. [BACK]

131. Shibao , Feb. 14 and 24, Mar. 6, 1913. [BACK]

132. Shibao , Feb. 14, Mar. 6 and 31, Apr. 10 and 19, 1913. [BACK]

133. Shibao , Apr. 5, 10, 12, and 13, May 1 and 28, July 1 and 4, 1913. [BACK]

134. Shibao , Apr. 5 and 13, July 30, 1913. [BACK]

135. Shibao , Oct. 5 and 6, 1912. [BACK]

136. Shibao , Apr. 13, 1913. [BACK]

137. USDS 893.00/1658 (Greene, Apr. 12, 1913); Shibao , Apr. 18, May 13, 15, and 21, 1913. break [BACK]

138. Shibao , Aug. 3, Sept. 7, and Oct. 2, 1913. [BACK]

139. Shibao , Aug. 17 and 24, 1913. [BACK]

140. Shibao , Sept. 11, 1913. [BACK]

1. Young, Presidency , 241-42. [BACK]

2. Chün-tu Hsüeh, "A Chinese Democrat: The Life of Sung Chiaojen," in Revolutionary Leaders of Modern China , ed. Chün-tu Hsüeh (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), 261-66. [BACK]

3. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 1: 149-50. [BACK]

4. Hsüeh, "Chinese Democrat," 263-66; Young, "Politics," 219. [BACK]

5. Young, Presidency , 123-29. [BACK]

6. Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, A.D. 990 - 1990 (Cambridge, Mass.: Basil Blackwell, 1990), 203-25. [BACK]

7. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 18: 8b-9a, 20: 2a-3b, 15a-16a; Shibao , May 7, 16, and 22, 1913. [BACK]

8. Shibao , May 18 and June 4, 1913; Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 21: 6b-8a. [BACK]

9. Young, Presidency , 130; Shibao , May 7, 11, 13, 16, 21, and 31, 1913. [BACK]

10. Sutton, Provincial Militarism , 148-49. [BACK]

11. Shibao , July 18, 1913. [BACK]

12. Shibao , Apr. 10-12, 1913. The declared goals of this plot were to "reform Hubei's government and continue the work of the revolution." According to one participant, the plotters did not agree on the need to overthrow Li. Li, however, could not but see the plot as a threat. Guo Jisheng, 99-100. [BACK]

13. The persistence of revolutionary activity, and Li's suppression of it, can be seen in frequent reports in the Shibao from May through August 1913. [BACK]

14. Wen Chuheng, 59; Shibao , July 2, 1913; GMWX, 44: 396-415. Accounts of local uprisings in Hubei in June and July can be found in XGHSX, 697-700. The only uprising of any strength involved remnants of Ji Yulin's 8th Division and other disbanded troops at Shayang in late July. Even this uprising was quickly suppressed. Shibao , July 30, Aug. 3 and 11, 1913. [BACK]

15. Shibao , May 22, 1913. [BACK]

16. Shibao , May 22 and 25, 1913. [BACK]

17. Liu Pengfo, 98-99; GMWX, 44: 329-30, 332-33. [BACK]

18. Wen Chuheng, 61. [BACK]

19. USDS 893.00/1901 (Greene, Aug. 1, 1913). [BACK]

20. Li Yuanhong, Li dazongtong zhengshu [The official correspondence of President Li] (Shanghai: Yayi shuju, 1916), 26: 3a. break [BACK]

21. Contrast the anti-Tan interpretation in Li Shiyue, 121-22, with Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 1: 206. Li Shiyue and many other secondary works incorrectly locate Li's report to Yuan in Li fuzongtong zhengshu instead of Li dazongtong zhengshu . [BACK]

22. Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 91. [BACK]

23. According to some accounts Zhao opposed Hunan's independence, and deliberately slowed his advance into Hubei. Li Yuanhong later sought to mitigate Zhao's punishment by substantiating this claim. Shibao , Aug. 21 and 22, Dec. 22, 1913. [BACK]

24. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 1: 189-191. After Huang's departure there was a second declaration of independence by Nanjing revolutionaries, who held out until September. [BACK]

25. Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 92-93; Shibao , Sept. 10, 1913. [BACK]

26. Wen Chuheng, 59. [BACK]

27. Central China Post , July 26, 1913, enclosed in USDS 893.00/1846 (Greene, July 28, 1913). [BACK]

28. Shibao , May, 16, 25, 26, and 28, 1913; USDS 893.00/1845. [BACK]

29. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 2: 4-6.

30. Ibid., 2: 7-21. [BACK]

29. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 2: 4-6.

30. Ibid., 2: 7-21. [BACK]

31. Li Yuanhong, Li dazongtong , 26: 3a; Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 20: 10b-11b, 26: 8b-9a, 32: 4b-5a; Shibao , Aug. 24 and Sept. 15, 1913; USDS 893.00/1930 (Remillard, Aug. 31, 1913). [BACK]

32. Ou Jinlin, 7-8; Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 93; Shibao , Sept. 13, 22, and 23, 1913. [BACK]

33. GMWX, 44: 488; USDS 893.00/1889 (Williams, Aug. 22, 1913); Shibao , Sept. 6 and 13, Oct. 15, 1913. [BACK]

34. USDS 893.00/1954 (Jameson, Sept. 10, 1913); Shibao , Sept. 5, 13, and 30, Oct 14, 1913. [BACK]

35. Shibao , Oct. 27, 1913; Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 94. Tan was sentenced to imprisonment by a military court but was soon pardoned by Yuan on Li Yuanhong's recommendation. [BACK]

36. He Juefei, 2: 603-6, 635-36. [BACK]

37. Shibao , Nov. 3, 1913; Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 1: 205-6. [BACK]

38. Shibao , July 31 and Aug. 4, 1913. [BACK]

39. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 33: 18a, 19a-20a; Shibao , Nov. 13, 19, and 22, 1913; Hunan gongbao , Dec. 16, 1913. [BACK]

40. Shibao , Dec. 10-13 and Dec. 17, 1913; Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 34: 7b-8a. [BACK]

41. Shibao , Feb. 4, 1914. [BACK]

42. USDS 893.00/1915 (Jameson, Aug. 30, 1913), 893.00/1954 (Jameson, Sept. 10, 1913). Liu Cuochen, Ezhou canji [Hubei's tragic record] (n.p., 1922), 1. [BACK]

43. The mixed brigade was originally designated the 2d Mixed Brigade, but this was changed to the 6th Mixed Brigade in late 1914. continue

Prior to this appointment, Wang Jinjing was the 3d Brigade commander of the 2d Division. Hubei gongbao , Jan. 13, 1914; Shibao , May 11, June 9, and Aug. 12, 1914. Zhiyuanlu [Register of Officials] (Beijing: Yinzhuju), 1913, no. 1: lujun guanzuo 5; 1914, no. 1: lujun guanzuo 5; 1914, no. 4: lujun guanzuo 33. [BACK]

44. Shibao , Sept. 19 and 30, 1913, Jan. 1, Apr. 26 and 27, 1914. [BACK]

45. Shibao , Sept 10, 1914, Jan. 13, 1916. In August 1914, Wu was also appointed National 4th Mixed Brigade commander ending his subordination to the Fengtian 20th Division. Shibao , Aug. 12, 1914. [BACK]

46. Shibao , Feb. 1 and Aug. 2, 1914. [BACK]

47. Wang Xueqian, commander of the 3d Division's 5th Brigade, took over as acting South Hunan garrison commander in early 1915. Zhiyuanlu , 1915, no. 1: lujun guanzuo 46. [BACK]

48. Shibao , Sept. 11, Dec. 12 and 20, 1913. [BACK]

49. Shibao , Jan. 1 and 30, Feb. 5, 1914. [BACK]

50. Shibao , Feb. 25 and June 9, 1914. Shi Xingchuan, formerly Hubei 1st Brigade commander, had replaced Tang Keming as commander of the Hubei 1st Division in June 1913. Shibao , June 16, 1913. [BACK]

51. Wan Yaohuang, oral history, sections 2, 9. [BACK]

52. Shibao , July 21, Aug. 11 and 31, 1913, May 6, 1915. [BACK]

53. Shibao , Apr. 26, 1914, Jan. 15, 1915. In becoming Jingzhou garrison commander, Li Tiancai replaced another man, Ding Huai, previously appointed to this post in May 1913. Ding does not seem to have had troops of his own; rather, he had loose authority over various units, including Li Tiancai's division. Shibao , May 6, Aug. 9 and 10, 1913. [BACK]

54. Shibao , May 3 and 6, 1915, Jan. 28, 1916. In Hubei at this time, "national" units were paid in hard currency while Hubei forces were paid in devalued paper currency. Shibao , Jan. 16, 1916. [BACK]

55. Shibao , Aug. 29, 1915; He Juefei, 2: 654. [BACK]

56. Shibao , Jan. 15, 1914. [BACK]

57. Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 91; Shibao , May 22 and 26, June 1, 1913. [BACK]

58. Shibao , Aug. 28, 1913; Zixuzi, 84. [BACK]

59. Zixuzi, 84, 90; Wen Gongzhi, 2: 316. [BACK]

60. Shibao , Oct. 15 and 30, 1913. Chen received a prison sentence and was released in 1916. Shibao , Apr. 24, 1914; Zhao Hengti, section 3; Dai Yue, "Fu Liangzuo du Xiang de pianduan jianwen" [Fragmentary observations on Fu Liangzuo's rule of Hunan], HWZ, 8: 105. [BACK]

61. Shibao , Dec. 22, 1913. Zhao was saved from a possible death penalty by Li Yuanhong's intervention and received instead a prison sentence. Another intercession by Li resulted in Zhao's release in 1915. Shibao , Apr. 24, 1914; Zhao Hengti, section 3. break [BACK]

62. Hunan gongbao , Dec. 10, 1913; Shibao , Dec. 23 and 25, 1913; JSZ,1980, no. 2: 149. [BACK]

63. For these garrison commander appointments, see Zhiyuanlu , 1913, no. 3: lujun guanzuo 38; Shibao , Aug. 11 and Oct. 15, 1913. The  newspaper  announcements mistakenly list Tao Zhongxun's appointment as South Hunan instead of West Hunan vice garrison commander. [BACK]

64. Tian Yinzhao was the scion of a prominent West Hunan gentry family and a graduate of Japan's Army Officers' Academy. Dai Jitao, "Xinhai geming houde Xiangxi" [West Hunan after the 1911 Revolution], HWZ, 10: 83. [BACK]

65. Shibao , Oct. 15 and Nov. 30, 1913. [BACK]

66. I have been unable to find the exact date for the exchange of Tao and Chen's positions, though the context of various accounts shows that it took place in midsummer 1913. At some point, Tao was replaced as 5th District commander by the revolutionary military activist Liu Wenjin. Liu fled after the failure of the Second Revolution, leaving the post open for Tao's return. Zixuzi, 88; Shibao , June 1 and Oct. 15, 1913; Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 23: 13b, 30: 6b. [BACK]

67. In provinces like Sichuan in the 1920s, independent garrison commanders became the symbol of warlord autonomy. See Ch'en, Military-Gentry Coalition , 56-58. [BACK]

68. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 1: 197-99. [BACK]

69. Shibao , Aug. 11, 1913. [BACK]

70. Shibao , Aug. 6 and 28, 1913; Dai Jitao, 83. [BACK]

71. Revolutionary activists saw Tao's successor at Yuezhou, Chen Fuchu, as an ally in their attempt to bring Hunan into the Second Revolution. See Wen Chuheng, 62. A bomb attack against Tao in July 1913 probably related to his opposition to the Second Revolution. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 23: 13b. [BACK]

72. Tang Xiangming reported that the Guard Corps numbered some fourteen thousand men in early 1914. JSZ, 1980, no. 2: 98. The West Hunan Green Standard army had some nine thousand troops after the 1911 Revolution and saw little change after that. Zixuzi, 89-90. [BACK]

73. Shibao , Nov. 20, 193. [BACK]

74. Tang planned to disband all but three thousand of the Guard Corps troops. JSZ, 1980, no. 2: 98-99. [BACK]

75. Hunan gongbao , Dec. 10, 1913; JSZ, 1980, no. 2: 140-42; Zhongguo di'er lishi dang'anguan [The no. 2 historical archives of China], Beiyang junfa tongzhi shiqi de bingbian [Mutinies during the period of Beiyang warlord rule] (Nanjing: Jiangsu renmin chubanshe, 1982), 84. [BACK]

76. Shibao , Mar. 15 and Apr. 30, 1914. break [BACK]

77. Zhang Zhiben, section 5, part 1. Wang held a magistrate's position and other posts in South Hunan before becoming 6th District commander. Shibao , Aug. 21, 1915, Dec. 22, 1916. [BACK]

78. At this time Zhao's forces consisted of seven battalions and twelve companies. Zhongguo di'er lishi dang'anguan, 110. [BACK]

79. Zhongguo di'er lishi dang'anguan, 78-115; Shibao , July 28 and Aug. 4, 1914; Zou Yongcheng and Li Guozhu, "Hunan tao-Yuan zhi yi" [Hunan's oust Yuan war], GMWX, 46, 234-36. [BACK]

80. Shibao , Sept. 10, 1914. [BACK]

81. Shibao , Sept. 5, 1914, Aug. 9 and 21, 1915; Zhongguo di'er lishi dang'anguan, 84; Zou and Li, 236. [BACK]

82. Zhongguo di'er lishi dang'anguan, 84. [BACK]

83. Shibao , June 9, 1914. [BACK]

84. Shibao , July 2, 1914; Riben lujun shiguan xuexiao Zhonghua Minguo liuxuesheng mingbu [Name list of Republican-era Chinese students of Japan's Army Officers' Academy] (Taibei: Wenhai chubanshe, 1977), 9. [BACK]

85. Shibao , Jan. 30 and May 6, 1915, Jan. 9, 1916; Hankou xinwenbao [Hankou News], Mar. 9, 1915. [BACK]

86. Shibao , Dec. 25, 1914, Jan. 30 and May 6, 1915. [BACK]

87. Shibao , Mar. 24, Apr. 12, May 25, and June 20, 1915, Mar. 17, 1916; Dagongbao [L'Impartial ], Changsha edition, Oct. 31, 1915. [BACK]

88. USDS 893.00/2352 (Johnson, Jan. 11, 1916). [BACK]

89. Shibao , Dec. 15, 18, and 22, 1913, Oct. 18, 1914. [BACK]

90. Shibao , Oct. 27, 1913. [BACK]

91. Young, Presidency , 157; Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 2: 75-78; Shibao , May 31, July 3 and 17, 1914. [BACK]

92. Shibao , Dec. 18, 1913, Oct. 18, 1914. [BACK]

93. Shibao , May 25 and Oct. 18, 1914. [BACK]

94. Shibao , Nov. 3 and Dec. 6, 1913, Feb. 15 and Apr. 6, 1914. [BACK]

95. Shibao , July 17, 1914. [BACK]

96. Shibao , Jan. 1 and 20, 1914, May 25, 1915. [BACK]

97. Shibao , Oct. 27, 1913, Feb. 15, 1914. [BACK]

98. Shibao , May 25, 1914. [BACK]

99. Shibao , Feb. 18, 1915. [BACK]

100. Shibao , Feb. 5, 1914. [BACK]

101. Shibao , Dec. 3 and 16, 1913, Feb. 22, 1915. A Hubei shengyuan , Hu Ruilin had risen to prominence in Hubei society as a businessman and financier in the late Qing era. The marriage of Hu's son to Tang Hualong's daughter cemented their close relationship. Hu served as finance minister in the Hubei military government under Tang Hualong after the 1911 Revolution, and went to Hunan to aid continue

Tang Xiangming's administration on Tang Hualong's recommendation. He Juefei, 2: 618-20. [BACK]

102. Shibao , Jan. 3, 1914, Jan. 30, 1915; Liu Cuochen, 1. [BACK]

103. Shibao , Jan. 9 and Feb. 6, 1914. [BACK]

104. Young, Presidency , 161-62. [BACK]

105. Shibao , Mar. 7, 1914. This process was also used to continue the removal of native Hubei magistrates. [BACK]

106. Shibao , Oct. 29, 1914.

107. Ibid. [BACK]

106. Shibao , Oct. 29, 1914.

107. Ibid. [BACK]

108. While 1913 budgets showed a deficit of several million yuan for Hubei and a small surplus of a half million yuan for Hunan, the 1914 budgets set by the central government projected surpluses for both provinces of over four million yuan. Shibao , Dec. 12, 1913, May 9, 1914. [BACK]

109. Shibao , Apr. 6, 1914. Numerous accounts in the Shibao in 1914 and 1915 report both Hunan and Hubei provincial governments working to meet constant central demands for funds. [BACK]

110. For examples, see Shibao , May 1 and Nov. 25, 1914, Jan. 18, 1915; Dagongbao , Sept. 19, Oct. 14 and 15, 1915. [BACK]

111. For one example of many such cutbacks, see Dagongbao , Sept. 10, 1915. [BACK]

112. Shibao , May 25, 1914. I found no evidence for Hunan or Hubei supporting Ernest Young's contention that only upper-level education contracted while primary education was maintained or expanded. Young, Presidency , 198. [BACK]

113. "Guanyu Tang Xiangming," 53, 64-65. The destruction of education figured prominently in revolutionary propaganda against Tang. For example, see an anti-Tang proclamation in Yang Shiji, 240. [BACK]

114. Although the frequent remittance of provincial funds is clear from contemporary accounts, it is difficult to estimate the exact amounts involved. This is not only owing to the lack of complete records, but because of the accounting methods employed. Some "national" taxes collected by the provinces were supposed to be sent directly to the central government, and these funds were not officially considered part of provincial remittances. On the other hand, some central remittances were advanced on the spot for national expenses incurred locally. Tang Xiangming reported having forwarded over 9,600,000 yuan to the central government from mid 1914 to mid 1915, but some of his accounts show much of this was advanced to northern armies in Hunan or for other centrally approved expenses. JSZ, 1980, no. 2: 117-22. [BACK]

115. Young, Presidency , 142-48, discusses terror as a feature of Yuan's dictatorship. break [BACK]

116. For some of the many references to the imposition of martial law, see Shibao , Feb. 6, Apr. 29, June 12, and Aug. 13, 1914. [BACK]

117. Shibao , Jan. 6, Mar. 9 and 14, Apr. 22 and 24, May 28, and June 5, 1914, Oct. 4, Nov. 29, and Dec. 1, 1915; USDS 893.00/2233 (Arnold, Oct. 28, 1914), 893.00/2235 (Arnold, Nov. 17, 1914). [BACK]

118. Zhang Pingzi, "Cong Qingmo dao beifajun ru Xiang qian de Hunan baojie" [Hunan's  newspaper  world from the late Qing era to the Northern Expedition Army's entry into Hunan], HWZ, 2: 73-75; "Guanyu Tang Xiangming," 54-55, 60-61. [BACK]

119. "Guanyu Tang Xiangming," 62; USDS 893.00/2352 (Johnson, Jan. 11, 1916); Shibao , Jan. 28, 1916. [BACK]

120. XGHSX, 719; Shibao , Mar. 19, 1914; Young, Presidency , 143. [BACK]

121. JSZ, 1980, no. 2: 134. [BACK]

122. Shibao , Apr. 8, 1914; Jing Siyou, "Beiyang junfa tongzhi Hunan shiqi jianwen suoji" [A trivial record of experiences in the period of Beiyang Army control of Hunan], HWZ, 8: 136. [BACK]

123. Shibao , Mar. 14, June 12, and Oct. 1, 1914, Feb. 26 and Nov. 21, 1915. [BACK]

124. JSZ, 43: 134; "Guanyu Tang Xiangming," 51-52. [BACK]

125. "Guanyu Tang Xiangming," 59. A "survivors' society" compiling evidence of Tang's crimes also reached a figure of over fifteen thousand executions. Dagongbao , Jan. 4, 1917. The Hunan Provincial Assembly used this figure in an impeachment of Tang in late 1916. Shibao , Nov. 29, 1916. [BACK]

126. Tu Zhuju, "Tang Xiangming zai Xiang baoxing ji choubei dizhi jishi" [A record of Tang Xiangming's atrocities in Hunan and his preparations for the monarchy], WZX, 48: 140. [BACK]

127. USDS 893.00/2233 (Arnold, Oct. 28, 1914). [BACK]

128. Tu Zhuju, 141-42. [BACK]

129. Central China Post , Aug. 17, 1914, enclosed in USDS 893.00/2202. [BACK]

130. Shibao , Oct. 1, 1914. [BACK]

131. Tu Zhuju, 140; "Guanyu Tang Xiangming," 53-54; JSZ,1980, no. 2: 134-35. [BACK]

132. JSZ, 1980, no. 2: 134; Shibao , Oct. 4, 1915. [BACK]

133. USDS 893.00/2234 (Arnold, Nov. 2, 1914), 893.00/2235 (Arnold, Nov. 17, 1914). [BACK]

134. Shibao , June 5, 1914. [BACK]

135. Shibao , July 31, 1914. [BACK]

136. Shibao , Mar. 14, 1914. [BACK]

137. Xiao Zhongqi, "Ji Tang Xiangming tusha Yang Delin deng" [A record of Tang Xiangming's slaughter of Yang Delin, etc.], HWZ, continue

3: 203-5; "Guanyu Tang Xiangming," 43-46; Shibao , Nov. 15, 21, and 24, 1913. [BACK]

138. The gentry, of course, were not the only or even the primary victims of the terror. Peasant disturbances were also harshly dealt with in this period and accounted for many executions in the countryside. Tang gave standing orders for the execution of all bandits captured by county officials, regardless of whether they were leaders or followers and of the seriousness of their offenses. Tu Zhuju, 145. It is difficult, however, to ascertain the extent to which this situation differed from the usual harsh suppression of lower-class disturbances. It is in this comparative sense that the vulnerability of the gentry to repression at this time assumes special significance. [BACK]

139. Young, Presidency , 177-209.

140. Ibid., 213. [BACK]

139. Young, Presidency , 177-209.

140. Ibid., 213. [BACK]

141. Shibao , Nov. 26 and 29, Dec. 1, 1915. [BACK]

142. Dagongbao , Sept. 22, 1915; Shibao , Sept. 13, 14, and 25, Oct. 4, 1915. [BACK]

143. Dagongbao , Oct. 1, 1915. [BACK]

144. Li Chien-nung, 317-18. [BACK]

145. Tu Zhuju, 146-48.

146. Ibid., 148; Dagongbao , Oct. 29, 1915; USDS 893.01/58 (Johnson, Oct. 29, 1915) and enclosed circular dated Nov. 5, 1915, from the Hubei commissioner of foreign affairs (Cunningham, Nov. 5, 1915). [BACK]

145. Tu Zhuju, 146-48.

146. Ibid., 148; Dagongbao , Oct. 29, 1915; USDS 893.01/58 (Johnson, Oct. 29, 1915) and enclosed circular dated Nov. 5, 1915, from the Hubei commissioner of foreign affairs (Cunningham, Nov. 5, 1915). [BACK]

147. Dagongbao , Sept. 1, 2, 3, and 22, 1915; Shibao , Sept. 6 and 12, 1915; USDS 893.00/2372 ("Economic and Political Conditions in Hankow," 1915 annual report). [BACK]

148. USDS 893.00/2352 (Johnson, Jan. 11, 1916). [BACK]

149. USDS 893.00/2352 (Lagerquist, Jan. 18, 1916). [BACK]

150. Shibao , Jan. 28 and May 6, 1916. [BACK]

151. USDS 893.00/2234 (Arnold, Nov. 2, 1914). [BACK]

152. Shibao , Oct. 5, 1915. [BACK]

153. USDS 893.00/2352 (Johnson, Jan. 11, 1916), 893.00/2372 ("Economic and Political Conditions in Hankow," 1915 annual report). [BACK]

154. USDS 893.00/2348 (Cunningham, Dec. 29, 1915). [BACK]

155. Dagongbao , Sept. 22, 1915; Shibao , Sept. 13, 1915. [BACK]

1. Besides Yunnan (Dec. 25, 1915) and Guizhou (Jan. 27, 1916), the other provinces declaring independence were Guangxi (Mar. 15), continue

Guangdong (Apr. 6), Zhejiang (Apr. 12), Shaanxi (May 9), Sichuan (May 22), and Hunan (May 29). [BACK]

2. Sheridan, Chinese Warlord , 8. [BACK]

3. See Nathan, 29-32, for a discussion of the characteristics of clientalism. [BACK]

4. Zheng Tingxi, "Wo suo zhidao de Wang Zhanyuan" [The Wang Zhanyuan I knew], WZX, 51: 252-53; Zhao Shilan, "Junfa Wang Zhanyuan jingying gongshangye gaikuang" [The general situation of the warlord Wang Zhanyuan's operation of industrial and commercial enterprises], in Tianjin wenshi ziliao xuanji [Selected Tianjin cultural and historical materials], ed. Zhongguo renmin xieshang huiyi Tianjin shi weiyuanhui, wenshi ziliao yanjiu weiyuanhui [Cultural and historical materials research committee, Tianjin committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference], vol. 4 (Tianjin: Tianjin renmin chubanshe, 1979), 163; Cao Yabo, 2: 121-23; Zhang Guogan, "Beiyang junfa de qiyuan" [The origins of the Beiyang warlords], in Beiyang junfa shiliao xuanji [Selected historical materials on the Beiyang warlords], ed. Du Chunhe, Lin Binsheng, and Qiu Quanzheng (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1981), 1: 45. [BACK]

5. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 2: 119-20; Shibao , April 27, 1914, Aug. 23 and 24, 1915. [BACK]

6. Shibao , Feb. 7, 1914, July 21 and Dec. 31, 1915. [BACK]

7. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 2: 166-68; Shibao , Aug. 24, Sept. 17 and 19, Dec. 24, 1915, Jan. 10, 1916. [BACK]

8. Young, Presidency , 222-27; Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 2: 180-82, 216-19. As a compromise, Feng proposed that Yuan be allowed to finish his term of office before retiring. For a description of the issues debated at the Nanjing conference, see Huguojun jishi [Record of the National Protection Army] (Shanghai: Zhonghua xinbaoguan, 1916), 5: 86-100. [BACK]

9. See Young, Presidency , 238. [BACK]

10. Shibao , Jan. 10, Mar. 17, Apr. 9, and May 3, 1916. [BACK]

11. Yang Wenkai, "Wo zai Wang Zhanyuan muxia de huodong pianduan" [A fragmentary account of my activities on Wang Zhanyuan's staff], WZX, 51: 90-93. Yang Wenkai was a graduate of Japan's Army Officers' Academy who joined Wang's staff in 1911. From 1916 to 1920, Yang headed the Hubei military governor's Office of Military Affairs. [BACK]

12. Shibao , May 2, 1916. [BACK]

13. Shibao , May 7, 1916. [BACK]

14. Shibao , May 29, 1916. [BACK]

15. Sutton, Provincial Militarism , 184-91. [BACK]

16. Cao Kun was appointed commander-in-chief of both Sichuan and Hunan fronts, but established his headquarters on the more cru- soft

cial Sichuan front. The 6th Division commander, Ma Jizeng, was transferred from Jiangxi with his troops to take charge of the West Hunan front. Other forces joining the 6th Division in Hunan were the 7th Mixed Brigade from Henan, most of the Fengtian 20th Division, and fifteen battalions of Anhui's Anwu Army, as well as smaller portions of other northern units. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 2: 162; Shibao , Apr. 11, 1916. [BACK]

17. The best study of Sun Yat-sen and his party in this period is Edward Friedman's Backward toward Revolution: The Chinese Revolutionary Party (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1974). [BACK]

18. Yang Shiji, 228-29; "Guizhou shibai hou Xiangzhong gemingdang shi gailue" [An outline history of the revolutionary party in Hunan after the 1913 defeat], GMWX, 47: 478-79. [BACK]

19. A number of revolutionaries accepted amnesties and returned from exile to show their support for the government. For example, Ji Yulin, the former Hubei 8th Division commander, who was involved in successive Hubei uprising attempts, accepted a pardon from Yuan in April 1915. Shibao , May 30, June 10 and 17, 1915. [BACK]

20. Cai Jimin was a graduate of the Hubei Special Military Primary School and a platoon commander in the Hubei army during the 1911 Revolution. Cai had a long revolutionary history in Hubei, going back to the Society for the Daily Increase in Knowledge and membership in both the Literature and the Forward Together societies. In 1912 Cai served for a short time as head of the Hubei Department of Military Affairs. He Juefei, 1: 271-74. [BACK]

21. Huguojun jishi , 2: 178-79; Shibao , Feb. 25 and 26, 1916. [BACK]

22. Shibao , May 29, 1916. [BACK]

23. Shibao , May 13, 24, and 28, 1916. The last of these accounts estimated that three to four thousand revolutionaries gathered in the Hankou concessions. [BACK]

24. There were four such attacks, and one accidental bomb explosion, in Hankou in a ten-day period in mid May. None of the attacks were successful in killing their intended victims. Memorandum of the Hubei commissioner of foreign affairs, enclosed in USDS 893.00/2442 (Cunningham, May 19, 1916); Shibao , May 14, 16, 20, and 23, 1916. [BACK]

25. HJDJ, 339-40; Huguojun jishi , 2: 180-82. [BACK]

26. Shibao , May 23, 1916. [BACK]

27. Shibao , Aug. 21, 1916. [BACK]

28. Shibao , Apr. 30, 1916. [BACK]

29. Yang Shiji, 233. [BACK]

30. HJDJ, 342; Shibao , May 17 and 19, 1916. [BACK]

31. Dai Jitao, 84. [BACK]

32. Reports on various National Protection Movement uprisings continue

and people's armies in Hunan from the Changsha Dagongbao are reproduced in HLZ, 1960, no. 1: 128-45. [BACK]

33. HLZ, 1960, no. 1: 131-32, 138; Dai Jitao, 84; Zhang Li'an, "Huguo zhi yi Qianjun zai donglu zuozhan jingguo" [The war experience of the Guizhou army on the eastern route during the National Protection War], in Guizhou wenshi ziliao xuanji [Collection of Guizhou cultural and historical materials], ed. Zhongguo renmin zhengzhi xieshang huiyi Guizhou sheng weiyuanhui, wenshi ziliao yanjiu weiyuanhui [Research committee on cultural and historical materials, Guizhou committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference], vol. 2 (Guiyang: Guizhou renmin chubanshe, 1981), 137-38. [BACK]

34. Cheng Qian, "Huguo zhi yi qianhou huiyi" [Memoir of the period before and after the National Protection War], HWZ, 8: 1-9.

35. Ibid., 10-19.

36. Ibid., 16.

37. Ibid., 20. Shibao , June 8, 1916, notes Zhou Zefan's defection to Cheng, but gives a slightly different account of the organization of his forces. Neither source relates the specific background of Zhou's Guard Corps troops, but from their location they were clearly the 5th District forces that had originally been under the command of Tao Zhongxun, the West Hunan vice garrison commander. Later accounts note that Zhou had been Tao's subordinate. Shibao , Jan. 12, 1917; Guomin xinbao [Citizen's News], Nov. 3, 1917. [BACK]

34. Cheng Qian, "Huguo zhi yi qianhou huiyi" [Memoir of the period before and after the National Protection War], HWZ, 8: 1-9.

35. Ibid., 10-19.

36. Ibid., 16.

37. Ibid., 20. Shibao , June 8, 1916, notes Zhou Zefan's defection to Cheng, but gives a slightly different account of the organization of his forces. Neither source relates the specific background of Zhou's Guard Corps troops, but from their location they were clearly the 5th District forces that had originally been under the command of Tao Zhongxun, the West Hunan vice garrison commander. Later accounts note that Zhou had been Tao's subordinate. Shibao , Jan. 12, 1917; Guomin xinbao [Citizen's News], Nov. 3, 1917. [BACK]

34. Cheng Qian, "Huguo zhi yi qianhou huiyi" [Memoir of the period before and after the National Protection War], HWZ, 8: 1-9.

35. Ibid., 10-19.

36. Ibid., 16.

37. Ibid., 20. Shibao , June 8, 1916, notes Zhou Zefan's defection to Cheng, but gives a slightly different account of the organization of his forces. Neither source relates the specific background of Zhou's Guard Corps troops, but from their location they were clearly the 5th District forces that had originally been under the command of Tao Zhongxun, the West Hunan vice garrison commander. Later accounts note that Zhou had been Tao's subordinate. Shibao , Jan. 12, 1917; Guomin xinbao [Citizen's News], Nov. 3, 1917. [BACK]

34. Cheng Qian, "Huguo zhi yi qianhou huiyi" [Memoir of the period before and after the National Protection War], HWZ, 8: 1-9.

35. Ibid., 10-19.

36. Ibid., 16.

37. Ibid., 20. Shibao , June 8, 1916, notes Zhou Zefan's defection to Cheng, but gives a slightly different account of the organization of his forces. Neither source relates the specific background of Zhou's Guard Corps troops, but from their location they were clearly the 5th District forces that had originally been under the command of Tao Zhongxun, the West Hunan vice garrison commander. Later accounts note that Zhou had been Tao's subordinate. Shibao , Jan. 12, 1917; Guomin xinbao [Citizen's News], Nov. 3, 1917. [BACK]

38. Cheng Qian, "Huguo," 19-20; Dai Jitao, 84-85. [BACK]

39. Cheng Qian, "Huguo," 19, 26-27.

40. Ibid., 26. [BACK]

39. Cheng Qian, "Huguo," 19, 26-27.

40. Ibid., 26. [BACK]

41. He Juefei, 2: 607; Cheng Qian, "Huguo," 30-31. [BACK]

42. Huguojun jishi , 5: 61; Yang Shiji, 235. The details of the agreement between Tang Xiangming, Tan Yankai, and Tan Zhen were revealed in a handbill published in June 1916 in Hunan by Tan Zhen. This handbill (identifying Tan Zhen as T'ang Chen) is enclosed in translation in USDS 893.00/2491 (Johnson, June 27, 1916). [BACK]

43. Huguojun jishi , 2: 61; USDS 893.00/2431 (Johnson, Apr. 19, May 4 and 9, 1916), 893.00/2441 (Johnson, May 19, 1916); Dazhongbao , May 15, 1916, enclosed in USDS 893.00/2441; Shibao , Apr. 19 and May 24, 1916. [BACK]

44. Huguojun jishi , 2: 61; USDS 893.00/2431 (Johnson, May 4, 1916); Dazhongbao , May 16, 1916, enclosed in USDS 893.00/2441; Shibao , May 10, 1916. Guo Renzhang was the ambitious son of a wealthy Hunan gentry family. His father served as a general under Zeng Guofan. During the 1911 Revolution, Guo used his position as a local military commander in Guangdong to assume the title of military governor. He was elected to the National Assembly in 1913 as a mem- soft

ber of the Nationalist Party, but supported Yuan in the Second Revolution. After this conflict, Yuan temporarily appointed Guo Hunan "inspector" before replacing him with Tang Xiangming. HJDJ, 342; Zixuzi, 74; Shibao , Apr. 7 and Sept. 18, 1913; "Guanyu Tang Xiangming," 43. [BACK]

45. Da Zhonghua zazhi [Great China Magazine], 2, no. 5 (May 20, 1916): 6; Huguojun jishi , 2: 61-66; Shibao , June 4, 1916. [BACK]

46. HJDJ, 342; Li Qi and Liu Zanting, "Women suo zhidao de Liu Zhong" [The Liu Zhong we knew], HWZ, 8: 165-66. [BACK]

47. Huguojun jishi , 2: 62-63; USDS 893.00/2441 (Johnson, May 16, 1916); Shibao , May 24, 1916. [BACK]

48. Cheng Qian, "Huguo," 28-31. [BACK]

49. Da Zhonghua zazhi , 2, no. 7 (July 20, 1916): 6; Wen Gongzhi, 2: 317. Tian's final decision was influenced by Xiong Xiling, a prominent West Hunan politician who had served at one point as Yuan's premier. Yuan appointed Xiong as West Hunan "pacification commissioner" to negotiate an end to Guizhou's invasion. Disillusioned by Yuan's attempt to make himself emperor, Xiong instead encouraged Tian to declare independence. Dai Jitao, 84-85. [BACK]

50. Huguojun jishi , 2: 67-68.

51. Ibid., 2: 72-73; Shibao , June 15, 17, and 18, 1916; USDS 893.00/2499 (Winterralter, July 15, 1916). [BACK]

50. Huguojun jishi , 2: 67-68.

51. Ibid., 2: 72-73; Shibao , June 15, 17, and 18, 1916; USDS 893.00/2499 (Winterralter, July 15, 1916). [BACK]

52. Zhao Hengti, section 4; Zhong Boyi, section 8; Cheng Qian, "Huguo," 30. [BACK]

53. According to most accounts, Zeng's army was organized into four tituan (echelons) under the commands of Chen Fuchu, Zhao Hengti, Liu Jianfan, and Chen Jiayou. Huguojun jishi , 2: 71; Shibao , June 11, 1916; HJDJ, 347. While other accounts differ somewhat on this organization, all sources agree that they were given few troops. [BACK]

54. T'ang Chen [Tan Zhen] handbill, enclosed in USDS 893.00/2491 (Johnson, June 27, 1916). [BACK]

55. Shibao , July 3, 1916. [BACK]

56. Huguojun jishi , 2: 71-73. In one widely publicized case, Li Youwen suppressed a number of revolutionary-led people's armies that had gathered in Yuezhou in mid May demanding official recognition. For this and other cases, see USDS 893.00/2491 (Beck, June 17, 1916); Shibao , June 28 and 29, 1916. It is worth noting that Tang was not alone in his distrust of the people's armies. Tian Yingzhao, Zhou Zefan, and even Cheng Qian were involved in the suppression of unruly people's armies. [BACK]

57. Shibao , June 19, 1916; Da Zhonghua zazhi , 2, no. 7 (July 20, 1916): 12. [BACK]

58. USDS 893.00/2431 (Johnson, May 4, 1916). [BACK]

59. Shibao , June 27, 1916; USDS 893.00/2491 (Johnson, June 27, continue

1916) and T'ang Chen [Tan Zhen] enclosure in the same; Huguojun jishi , 2: 71. [BACK]

60. USDS 893.00/2491 (Johnson, June 27, 1916).

61. Ibid., and T'ang Chen [Tan Zhen] enclosure in the same; USDS 893.00/2491 (Johnson, June 22, 1916); Shibao , June 14 and 18, 1916. [BACK]

60. USDS 893.00/2491 (Johnson, June 27, 1916).

61. Ibid., and T'ang Chen [Tan Zhen] enclosure in the same; USDS 893.00/2491 (Johnson, June 22, 1916); Shibao , June 14 and 18, 1916. [BACK]

62. Cheng Qian, "Huguo," 31-37.

63. Ibid., 36-37; Dagongbao , July 6, 1916, in HLZ, 1960, no. 1: 146; Shibao , July 15, 1916. [BACK]

62. Cheng Qian, "Huguo," 31-37.

63. Ibid., 36-37; Dagongbao , July 6, 1916, in HLZ, 1960, no. 1: 146; Shibao , July 15, 1916. [BACK]

64. Cheng Qian, "Huguo," 37; Shibao , July 16, 1916. [BACK]

65. USDS 893.00/2491 (Johnson, July 6, 1916), 893.00/2534 (Johnson, July 10, 1916). One contender for the military governor's post was Guo Renzhang, who still had a military base in the remnants of his mine guards. Another contender was Tang Mang, a revolutionary activist and son of the late Qing reformer and revolutionary Tang Caichang, who had gathered unorganized troops into a constabulary force. Shibao , July 12 and 13, 1916; Zhong Boyi, section 8; Da Zhonghua zazhi , 2, no. 8 (Aug. 1916): 7. [BACK]

66. Shibao , July 12 and 15, 1916; Da Zhonghua zazhi , 2, no. 8 (Aug. 1916): 7; Zhong Boyi, section 8; Zixuzi, 97. [BACK]

67. "Guanyu Tang Xiangming," 49; Zhang Pingzi, 75. [BACK]

68. Zhong Boyi, section 8; Zhao Hengti, section 4; Da Zhonghua zazhi , 2, no. 8 (Aug. 1916): 7. [BACK]

69. Shibao , July 15, 17, and 28, Aug. 1, 1916; Da Zhonghua zazhi , 2, no. 9 (Sept. 1916): 2-3. [BACK]

70. Huang Xing recommended Tan's return, ensuring revolutionary support. Important Progressive Party leaders such as Xiong Xiling also gave Tan their support when it became clear that Cai would not accept the post. Both Liu Renxi and Lu Rongting also sent representatives to Shanghai to urge Tan's return. Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 95; Zhong Boyi, section 8. Tan's central appointment was issued on August 3, 1916. Shibao , Aug. 5, 1916. [BACK]

71. Shibao , Sept. 1, 1916; USDS 893.00/2534 (Johnson, Aug. 29, 1916). [BACK]

72. Shibao , July 14, 21, and 24, 1916; USDS 893.00/2733 (Johnson, Oct. 6, 1917). [BACK]

73. Shibao , July 24, Aug. 5 and 27, 1916; USDS 893.00/2534 (Johnson, July 21, 1916). [BACK]

74. See reports on the Assembly's activities after the opening of its second session in Dagongbao , Mar.-May 1917. [BACK]

75. Shibao , July 9 and 10, 1916. [BACK]

76. Shibao , July 12, 13, 14, 16, 21, and 26, 1916. [BACK]

77. Shibao , July 18 and 27, Aug. 5, 1916. Reflecting this semantic continue

difference, central communications addressed Tan as civil governor, whereas he insisted on being addressed as military governor within Hunan. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 3: 31-32. [BACK]

78. Da Zhonghua zazhi , 2, no. 9 (Sept. 1916): 1; USDS 893.00/2534 (Johnson, Aug. 1 and 9, 1916). In early May, Tang Xiangming sent Li Youwen to take control of Yuezhou from northern troops. At the end of the month, Li was recalled to protect Tang at Changsha, leaving the city open to northern reoccupation. Shibao , June 11, 1916; USDS 893.00/2491 (Johnson, June 19, 1916; Beck, June 24, 1916). Wu Guangxin was a Jiangsu graduate of Japan's Army Officers' Academy. He rose through the Beiyang Army to the rank of division commander before resigning in opposition to Yuan's monarchical attempt. Guomin xinbao , Oct. 5, 1917. [BACK]

79. Shibao , July 21 and 24, 1916. [BACK]

80. USDS 893.00/2534 (Johnson, Aug. 1, 1916); Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 95; Shibao , Aug. 11, Sept. 25, and Oct. 25, 1916; Dagongbao , Jan. 9, 1917. [BACK]

81. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 3: 21-22; Hunan gongbao , Aug. 16, 1916. [BACK]

82. Shibao , Aug. 26 and Sept. 29, 1916. [BACK]

83. USDS 893.00/2534 (Johnson, Aug. 9, 1916). [BACK]

84. Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 95-96; Shibao , Aug. 23 and 26, 1916. [BACK]

85. Shibao , Aug. 21 and Sept. 17, 1916; USDS 893.00/2534 (Johnson, Aug. 9, 1916). [BACK]

86. Shibao , Sept. 29, 1916. [BACK]

87. Shibao , July 24, 1916; Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 96. [BACK]

88. Shibao , Aug. 26, 1916. [BACK]

89. Shibao , Dec. 22, 1916; Dagongbao , Feb. 15, 19, and 28, Mar. 19, 1917. [BACK]

90. Dagongbao , Feb. 28, 1917. [BACK]

91. As chief of staff of Hunan's 4th Division in 1912, Chen Fuchu had assisted in Tan's troop disbandment. His previous Guard Corps command had been a reward for this service. Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 79. [BACK]

92. Zhao Hengti, section 4. [BACK]

93. HJDJ, 346-47; Hu Nai'an, Xin Xiangjun zhi [Record of the new Hunan army] (Taibei: Zhizhuan shuwo, 1969), 93; Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 99. Chen Binghuan (Shufan) was a gongsheng degree-holder and vice president of the late Qing Hunan Provincial Assembly. He participated in the assassination conspiracy against Jiao Dafeng in 1911 that put Tan into the military governorship. HJDJ, 304; Esherick, 208-9, 240. break [BACK]

94. Dagongbao , Jan. 7 and 9, 1917. [BACK]

95. USDS 893.00/2534 (Cunningham, July 27, 1916); Shibao , July 5, 9, 13, and 31, 1916. [BACK]

96. Hankow Daily News , July 31, 1916, and Central China Post , July 31, Aug. 1 and 4, 1916, enclosed in USDS 893.00/2534. [BACK]

97. Liu Cuochen, 1. [BACK]

98. Shibao , Dec. 17, 1914, Aug. 2, 1915. [BACK]

99. Shibao , June 14 and Aug. 17, 1915, Feb. 6 and 23, 1916. [BACK]

100. Liu Cuochen, 1-2. [BACK]

101. Shibao , July 5, 1916. [BACK]

102. Liu Cuochen, 2. [BACK]

103. Central China Post , Aug. 1, 1916, enclosed in USDS 893.00/2534. [BACK]

104. Liu Cuochen, 3. [BACK]

105. Shibao , Jan. 10, 1916. [BACK]

106. Hubei gongbao , Jan. 13, 1914; Shibao , Aug. 12, 1914. [BACK]

107. Wang Maoshang had previously been commander of the 2d Division's 4th Brigade. Zhiyuanlu , 1915, no. 1: lujun guanzuo 7; 1916, no. 1: lujun guanzuo 31. [BACK]

108. Both Wang Jinjing and Wang Maoshang served as regiment commanders under Wang Zhanyuan in 1908 when he was still a 2d Division brigade commander. MacKinnon, "Peiyang Army," 416. Wang Jinjing, like Wang Zhanyuan, was a Shandong native, and the two men had a close friendship, going back to the days when they had trained together under Yuan Shikai. Although a rather mediocre officer, Wang Jinjing's strong loyalty assured him of Wang Zhan-yuan's patronage. Zheng Tingxi, 255. [BACK]

109. A number of forces withdrawn from Sichuan and Hunan after the Anti-Monarchical War were garrisoned in Hubei, but most were eventually disbanded, transferred elsewhere, or placed under the control of other commanders. For example, Wang gained temporary control over Wu Xiangzhen's 4th Mixed Brigade and Li Bingzhi's 13th Mixed Brigade after their withdrawal from Sichuan. Later, though, Wu's brigade was disbanded and the 13th Mixed Brigade was placed under Wu Guangxin's command. Only a Henan army mixed regiment commanded by Kou Yingjie remained more or less permanently under Hubei control after its withdrawal from Hunan. Guomin xinbao , Apr. 7, 1917; Shibao , Nov. 5, 1916, June 7, 1917. [BACK]

110. Shibao , Jan. 22, 1916. [BACK]

111. Shibao , Jan. 9, 1916. [BACK]

112. Shibao , May 6, 18, and 23, 1916. [BACK]

113. Shibao , May 23, Aug. 29, Sept. 6, and Nov. 5, 1916; Guomin xinbao , May 18, 1917. [BACK]

114. Liu Cuochen, 2. break [BACK]

115. Shibao , July 23, 1916. The deceased civil governor, Fan Shouyou, had only been appointed to his post by Yuan Shikai in early May 1916, and made little impact on Hubei administration. Nonetheless, the appointment of Fan, one of Yuan's loyal supporters, indicated Yuan's determination even at that late date to maintain his influence over provincial administration. Shibao , May 9, 1916. [BACK]

116. Shibao , July 25, 1916. A request for Wang's succession as civil governor originated with the Hubei Chamber of Commerce, but it was reportedly "pressured" by the provincial bureaucracy, which feared the appointment of a new civil governor. Shibao , July 27, 1916. [BACK]

117. Shibao , Sept. 8, 1916. [BACK]

118. Shibao , Aug. 20 and 31, Sept. 8, 1916. [BACK]

119. In September 1916, Wang led the Hubei bureaucracy in opposing a nominee reportedly accepted by the National Assembly, Li Yuanhong, and Duan Qirui, and warned that he would only hand the seal of office over to his own candidate. Shibao , Sept. 8, 1916. [BACK]

120. Zheng Tingxi, 254-55. Among the posts Wang allowed the central government to fill were the directorships of the Education and Industry Departments, offices whose low budgets rendered them effectively powerless. [BACK]

121. For example, in October 1916, Wang's chief of staff, He Peirong, was appointed to a concurrent post as head of the Department of Government Affairs. Shibao , Oct. 12, 1916. [BACK]

122. Shibao , July 31, Aug. 11, 18, and 19, Oct. 1 and 22, 1916. [BACK]

123. These disputes are recorded in Shibao , Oct. 1916-Sept. 1917. [BACK]

124. Zheng Tingxi, 253. [BACK]

125. Liu Cuochen, 3. [BACK]

1. For details on the political conflicts of this period, see Li Chiennung, 352-67, or Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 3: 53-133. [BACK]

2. For details on the activities of the dujuntuan , see Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 3: 56-66, 85-87, 108-16.

3. Ibid., 120-32, 139-46. [BACK]

2. For details on the activities of the dujuntuan , see Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 3: 56-66, 85-87, 108-16.

3. Ibid., 120-32, 139-46. [BACK]

4. Nathan, Peking Politics . [BACK]

5. USDS 893.00/2640 (Cunningham, June 2, 1917), and Central China Post , June 2, 1917, enclosed in the same; Guomin xinbao , June 2 and 3, 1917; Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 3: 144. [BACK]

6. Central China Post , June 2, 1917, enclosed in USDS 893.00/2640 (Cunningham, June 2, 1917). [BACK]

7. This would become increasingly evident after Feng's death in 1920, when Wang tried to assume Feng's role as chief intermediary continue

between the north and south. In 1921, Wang even attempted to fashion a central China alliance of Beiyang and non-Beiyang provinces with himself as its leader. Liu Cuochen, 7; Shuntian ribao , June 5 and 8, 1921. [BACK]

8. Guomin xinbao , June 2 and 3, 1917. The U.S. consul at Hankou reported that pressure from the business community influenced Wang's position. USDS 893.00/2640 (Cunningham, June 2, 1917). [BACK]

9. Shibao , June 17 and 25, July 3, 1917; Central China Post , June 2, 1917, enclosed in USDS 893.00/2640 (Cunningham, June 2, 1917). [BACK]

10. Central China Post , June 2, 1917, enclosed in USDS 893.00/2640 (Cunningham, June 2, 1917). [BACK]

11. Guomin xinbao , May 27 and 29, 1917. [BACK]

12. See, e.g., Liu Cuochen, 4. [BACK]

13. Ch'i, 23, 33-34. [BACK]

14. Guomin xinbao , Aug. 11 and 12, 1917; Dagongbao , Aug. 10, 1917; Dai Yue, 103; Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai." [BACK]

15. Dagongbao , Aug. 10 and Sept. 10, 1917; Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 98-99. [BACK]

16. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 3: 169-70, 4: 6-7, 24-30. The southern provinces preserved some flexibility in their relationship to Beijing by declaring autonomy ( zizhu ) instead of independence ( duli ). Thus they acknowledged Li's legitimacy as president while rejecting the policies forced upon him by Zhang Xun. Retaining this "autonomy" allowed them to seek compromises with Feng Guozhang, whose succession to the presidency they accepted as legitimate, while opposing Duan Qirui, whom they saw as the source of the Beijing government's "illegal" policies. [BACK]

17. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 4: 15; Qiu Ao, "Liu Jianfan Lingling duli qianhou" [The beginning and end of Liu Jianfan's independence at Lingling], WZX, 26: 75-76. [BACK]

18. Qiu Ao, "Liu Jianfan," 76-77. Although Tan denied their authenticity, southern  newspapers  printed telegrams he allegedly sent to other provincial leaders seeking military assistance. Dagongbao , Aug. 26, 1917. [BACK]

19. Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 96, 99; Qiu Ao, "Liu Jianfan," 77; Dai Yue, 108; Guomin xinbao , Aug. 15, 1917; Dagongbao , Aug. 23, 1917. [BACK]

20. Dagongbao , Aug. 27 and 31, Sept. 1, 1917; USDS 893.00/2797 (Johnson, Jan. 5, 1918); Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 99; Huang Yi'ou, "Liu Jianfan shiji huiyi" [Memoir of the deeds of Liu Jianfan], HWZ, 8: 177. [BACK]

21. Dagongbao , Aug. 30 and Sept. 20, 1917. [BACK]

22. Huang Yi'ou, "Liu Jianfan," 172-77; Guomin xinbao , Oct. 5, 1917. break [BACK]

23. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 4: 14; Dagongbao , Aug. 15, Sept. 5 and 18, 1917. [BACK]

24. Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 100. [BACK]

25. Dagongbao , Aug. 23, Sept. 3 and 10, 1917. [BACK]

26. Dagongbao , Aug. 23, 28, and 30, Sept. 1 and 2, 1917; Guomin xinbao , Sept. 5, 1917; Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 100. [BACK]

27. Dagongbao , Sept. 10 and 11, Oct. 8, 1917; Guomin xinbao , Sept. 13, 1917. [BACK]

28. Dagongbao , Sept. 19 and 21, 1917; Guomin xinbao , Sept. 22, 24, and 28, 1917; HJDJ, 361-62. [BACK]

29. Guomin xinbao , Oct. 3 and 19, 1917; Dagongbao , Sept. 10, 21, and 22, Oct. 3 and 16, 1917; Dai Yue, 104. [BACK]

30. Guomin xinbao , Oct. 9, 1917; Dagongbao , Oct. 5 and 7, 1917; Ou Jinlin, 9; Ningxiang xianzhi, xinzhi , 1: 5. [BACK]

31. Zhong Boyi, section 11; Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 98. [BACK]

32. Dagongbao , Aug. 28, Sept. 10 and 13, 1917; Guomin xinbao , Aug. 25, Oct. 9 and 16, 1917; Dai Yue, 105. [BACK]

33. Yang Shiji, 246; Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 4: 36-37. [BACK]

34. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 4: 31-32. [BACK]

35. Guomin xinbao , Oct. 14 and 15, 1917. [BACK]

36. Dagongbao , Nov. 17, 18, and 19, 1917; Guomin xinbao , Nov. 17, 20, and 22, 1917. [BACK]

37. Dai Yue, 108; Yang Siyi, "Hufa shiqi de Xiangxi dongxiang" [West Hunan's tendencies in the constitutional protection period], HWZ, 8: 120; Guomin xinbao , Nov. 26, 1917. [BACK]

38. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 4: 41-43, 48.

39. Ibid., 59-60.

40. Ibid., 56-57. [BACK]

38. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 4: 41-43, 48.

39. Ibid., 59-60.

40. Ibid., 56-57. [BACK]

38. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 4: 41-43, 48.

39. Ibid., 59-60.

40. Ibid., 56-57. [BACK]

41. Chan, 15-17. [BACK]

42. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 4: 62. [BACK]

43. Zhang Lianfen, "1918 nian beiyangjun dui Xiang zuozhan jingguo" [The Beiyang Army's 1918 war experience against Hunan], WZX, 26: 95, 103.

44. Ibid., 100-101. [BACK]

43. Zhang Lianfen, "1918 nian beiyangjun dui Xiang zuozhan jingguo" [The Beiyang Army's 1918 war experience against Hunan], WZX, 26: 95, 103.

44. Ibid., 100-101. [BACK]

45. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 4: 73; Shibao , Dec. 5, 7, and 23, 1917. [BACK]

46. Shi Xingchuan specifically mentioned this grievance in his declaration of independence. Zhang Lianfen, 101-2. [BACK]

47. Shibao , Dec. 10, 1917; Guomin Xinbao , Jan. 15, 1918. These sources incorrectly identify Zhang Liansheng as a Shandong native. Official sources list Zhang as a native of the Beijing metropolitan area. However, both of Zhang's subordinate regiment commanders, Sun Jianbing and Zhao Ronghua, were Shandong men. Zhiyuanlu , 1916, no. 1: lujun guanzuo 18-19. break [BACK]

48. Shibao , Dec. 31, 1917; Guomin xinbao , Jan. 11, 1918. [BACK]

49. Zhang Lianfen, 101-2; Guomin xinbao , Jan. 3 and 4, 1918; Shibao , Jan. 11, 1918. [BACK]

50. Guomin xinbao , Jan. 4 and 13, 1918. [BACK]

51. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 4: 79; Zhang Lianfen, 96-97; Guomin xinbao , Jan. 20, 22, 26, and 28, Apr. 18, 1918; Hubei wenxian ziliao shi [Hubei documents reference room], "Xia Douyin xiansheng zhuanlue" [A biographical sketch of Mr. Xia Douyin], Hubei wenxian 8 (July 10, 1968): 5. [BACK]

52. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 4: 74, 82; HJDJ, 367-69; Qiu Ao, "Liu Jianfan," 83-85. [BACK]

53. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 4: 75, 82-85, 109.

54. Ibid., 105; Zhang Lianfen, 95. Many accounts give highly exaggerated figures for the number of northern troops involved in the Hunan campaign. For example, Yang Shiji, 248, and HJDJ, 369, report a half million men. The smaller figure used here is based on a detailed unit-by-unit contemporary accounting in Hunan shanhou xiehui [Hunan rehabilitation association], Xiangzai jilue [A record of Hunan's calamity] (n.p., 1919), 59-61. [BACK]

53. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 4: 75, 82-85, 109.

54. Ibid., 105; Zhang Lianfen, 95. Many accounts give highly exaggerated figures for the number of northern troops involved in the Hunan campaign. For example, Yang Shiji, 248, and HJDJ, 369, report a half million men. The smaller figure used here is based on a detailed unit-by-unit contemporary accounting in Hunan shanhou xiehui [Hunan rehabilitation association], Xiangzai jilue [A record of Hunan's calamity] (n.p., 1919), 59-61. [BACK]

55. HJDJ, 370-76; Hunan shanhou xiehui, 33-44. [BACK]

56. Zhang Lianfen, 98; HJDJ, 372, 375-76. [BACK]

57. Hunan shanhou xiehui, 63. [BACK]

58. Lin Xiumei, Lin Xiumei yizhu [Lin Xiumei's bequeathed writings] (n.p., 1921), 23. [BACK]

59. See, e.g., Yang Shiji, 244-45. [BACK]

60. Dagongbao , Oct. 25, 1917. [BACK]

61. Hsieh, "Ideas and Ideals of a Warlord." [BACK]

62. Pye, Warlord Politics , viii. [BACK]

1. R. Keith Schoppa, "Province and Nation: The Chekiang Provincial Autonomy Movement, 1917-1927," Journal of Asian Studies 36 (1977): 674. [BACK]

2. The most comprehensive account of various provincial selfgovernment/federalist movements in English remains an article by Jean Chesneaux translated from the French, "The Federalist Movement in China, 1920-3," in Modern China's Search for a Political Form , ed. Jack Gray (London: Oxford University Press, 1969). A good source of information on the principles of these movements, including many primary documents, is Wang Wuwei, Hunan zizhi yundong shi [History of the Hunan self-government movement] (Shanghai: Taidong tushuju, 1920). break [BACK]

3. Schoppa, 672-74. [BACK]

4. Hunan shanhou xiehui, 39-40. Duan Qirui sought Tan Yankai's return as civil governor to undermine opposition to the imposition of northern rule in Hunan. Hence Zhang only received an "acting" appointment. Tan's refusal to cooperate left Zhang unchallenged as civil governor. [BACK]

5. Guomin xinbao , Jan. 20, 1919; Shibao , Apr. 5 and Nov. 16, 1919. [BACK]

6. Liu Cuochen, 6; Shibao , July 24, 1919. [BACK]

7. Dagongbao , July 4, 1919. [BACK]

8. Hunan shanhou xiehui, 380-81. [BACK]

9. Liu Cuochen, 9-10. [BACK]

10. Zheng Tingxi, 254; Shibao , Nov. 14 and 26, 1919. [BACK]

11. Shibao , Oct. 12, 1916, Feb. 17 and Nov. 13, 1917, and Aug. 29, 1918. [BACK]

12. Shibao , Aug. 2, Sept. 3 and 14, 1917. [BACK]

13. For example, Zhang appointed the head of his military supplies department as supervisor of a new provincial bank, clearly marking it as "Zhang's bank." See Hunan shanhou xiehui, 170-72. One of the biggest corruption scandals in Hunan during Zhang's tenure concerned a relative of his who headed Hunan's salt administration. Ibid., 186-87. [BACK]

14. Odoric Wou has shown that while the percentage of local magistrates who had received military training or education remained small, official appointments and promotions increasingly depended on a civil bureaucrat's military connections and record of service to pertinent military commanders. Odoric Y. K. Wou, "The District Magistrate Profession in the Early Republican Period: Occupational Recruitment, Training and Mobility," Modern Asian Studies 8, no. 2 (1974): 239-45. [BACK]

15. Shibao , July 4, 1920. See Dagongbao , May 31, 1918, and June 1, 1919, for similar examples of central tax revenues withheld by Zhang Jingyao, primarily for troop pay. [BACK]

16. Hunan shanhou xiehui, 237-38.

17. Ibid., 169-89; Li Cuochen, 3; Zheng Tingxi, 261-65. [BACK]

16. Hunan shanhou xiehui, 237-38.

17. Ibid., 169-89; Li Cuochen, 3; Zheng Tingxi, 261-65. [BACK]

18. See, e.g., Ch'i, 150-78; Wou, Militarism , 67-80; Ch'en, Military-Gentry Coalition , 130-38. [BACK]

19. Guomin xinbao , Feb. 9, 1919. For similar complaints, see Guomin xinbao , Feb. 17, 1919; Shibao , May 4 and Aug. 22, 1919. [BACK]

20. Dagongbao , Apr. 18 and Nov. 9, 1919; Hunan shanhou xiehui, 253, 301-21. [BACK]

21. Zheng Tingxi, 257. [BACK]

22. For example, the Hubei Provincial Assembly strongly protested taxes raised without its approval to fund the Provincial Defense Corps, continue

complaining that the continuing allocation of tax revenues for new troops would mean that "Hubei's provincial culture would steadily degenerate." Shibao , Sept. 28, 1917. [BACK]

23. Liu Cuochen, 4-5, 15. [BACK]

24. For a sampling of such cases, see Shibao , Oct. 23, 1916, Jan. 12, 1917, June 30, 1918, Apr. 6, 1919; Dagongbao , May 26 and 27, June 9, 1918. [BACK]

25. Dagongbao , Dec. 12, 1919. [BACK]

26. Shibao , Dec. 16, 21, and 24, 1920. [BACK]

27. Ch'en, Military-Gentry Coalition . [BACK]

28. Edward A. McCord, "Militia and Local Militarization in Late Qing and Early Republican China: The Case of Hunan," Modern China , 14, no. 2 (Apr. 1988): 177-79. [BACK]

29. Shibao , Aug. 17, 1918. [BACK]

30. In November 1917, Wang Jinjing was appointed commanderin-chief of the northern defenses at Yuezhou. In February 1918, he was removed from his 2d Division command for yielding this city to the advancing southern forces, even though his retreat most likely had Wang Zhanyuan's approval. On Wang Zhanyuan's recommendation, he was briefly restored to the 2d Division command in January 1919. Shibao , Jan. 10, 1916; Guomin xinbao , Nov. 14, 1917, Jan. 31, Feb. 6, and Apr. 8, 1918; Hankou xinwenbao , Jan 10, 1919. [BACK]

31. Guomin xinbao , Nov. 10, 1917; Shibao , Nov. 15, 1917; Zhiyuanlu , 1919, no. 2: lujun guanzuo 27. [BACK]

32. Guomin xinbao , Oct. 31, 1917; Shibao , Nov. 12, 1917. Previously, in 1913, Sun had advanced from 2d Division battalion commander to 6th Regiment commander. In early 1917, Sun was appointed 3d Brigade commander of the 2d Division, and soon after he was made commander of the Hubei Provincial Defense Corps too. Later, in 1921, Sun became commander of the 18th Division on Wang's recommendation. When Wang left Hubei, Sun succeeded him as 2d Division commander. By the mid 1920s, Sun was a prominent warlord in his own right, with hegemony over five provinces. Zhiyuanlu , 1913, no. 1: lujun guanzuo 5; 1913, no. 2: lujun guanzuo 5. Yang Wenkai, "Sun Chuanfang de yisheng" [The life of Sun Chuanfang], in Tianjin wenshi ziliao xuanji [Collection of Tianjin cultural and historical materials], ed. Zhongguo renmin zhengzhi xieshang huiyi Tianjin shi weiyuanhui wenshi ziliao yanjiu weiyuanhui [Research committee on cultural and historical materials, Tianjin committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference], vol. 2 (Tianjin: Tianjin renmin chubanshe, 1979), 80-83; Shibao , Jan. 29 and June 23, 1917; Shuntian ribao , Mar. 25, 1921. [BACK]

33. Shibao , Jan. 9, 1916. [BACK]

34. Shibao , Dec. 31, 1917; Guomin xinbao , Jan. 11 and 17, 1918. break [BACK]

35. Shibao , Nov. 15, 1917; Guomin xinbao , Nov. 14 and 26, 1917, Nov. 21, 1918. The new commander of the Hubei 2d Mixed Brigade, Nan Yuanchao, had held the position of 2d Division cavalry regiment commander since the early Republic. Zhiyuanlu , 1913, no. 1: lujun guanzuo 5. [BACK]

36. Guomin xinbao , Mar. 25, 1919. [BACK]

37. The formation of these two brigades superseded original plans to restore the 9th Division. Zhang Liansheng was given command of the 17th Mixed Brigade, while one of his former regiment commanders, Zhao Ronghua, was placed over the 18th. Guomin xinbao , Jan. 21 and 31, 1918; Shibao , Mar. 1, 1918. [BACK]

38. Guomin xinbao , Nov. 12, 1918. [BACK]

39. Guomin xinbao , Apr. 7, 1917; Shibao , June 7, 1917. [BACK]

40. Guomin xinbao , Nov. 7, 1917; Shibao , Apr. 21, 1918; Fei Zepu, "Wu Guangxin zai Changjiang shangyou de xingbai" [The rise and fall of Wu Guangxin on the upper Yangzi], WZX, 41: 73. [BACK]

41. Among the pacified bandit leaders associated with Zhang were a pair of brothers, Mao Hong'en and Mao Hongyi. They became brigade commanders through Zhang's patronage. Shibao , July 31 and Aug. 10, 1920. [BACK]

42. One brother, Zhang Jingtang, was given command of a unit designated the 42d Brigade, later changed to the Hunan 1st Brigade. HJDJ, 374; Ningxiang xianzhi, xinzhi , 1: 10. Another brother, Zhang Jingshun, commanded the "temporary" 12th Brigade, while yet another, Zhang Jingyu, became commander of a specially organized mixed regiment. Zhang Jingyao created a regimental command for his adopted son and brother-in-law, Zhang Jizhong, originally a pacified Shandong bandit. Guomin xinbao , Mar. 26 and Oct. 12, 1918; Dagongbao , Oct. 12, 1918; Xu Hejun, "Guanyu Zhang Jingyao" [Concerning Zhang Jingyao], HWZ, 11: 115. [BACK]

43. Hunan shanhou xiehui, 379. [BACK]

44. Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 4: 172; HJDJ, 379. [BACK]

45. The designation of Zhu Zehuang's brigade changed several times from the 17th Brigade, to the 1st Brigade, to the 5th Mixed Brigade. Dagongbao , May 21, June 8 and 26, Oct. 11, 26, and 28, 1918. [BACK]

46. Hunan shanhou xiehui, 89; Guomin xinbao , Apr. 6 and 12, 1918; Dagongbao , May 22, 1918. [BACK]

47. Dagongbao , June 8 and 10, Aug. 11, and Dec. 8, 1918. [BACK]

48. These forces included the Jiangsu 6th Mixed Brigade led by Zhang Zongchang (a future Shandong military governor), the Jiangxi 23d Brigade, the Shandong 1st Division, an assortment of Anhui battalions (including some led by a future Anhui military governor, Ma Lianjia), and finally a large Fengtian army contingent (including commanders such as Sun Liechen, soon to become military governor continue

of Heilongjiang, and Zhang Jinghui, later military governor of Chahar). Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 4: 105; Dagongbao , June 20 and 24, 1918; Hunan shanhou xiehui, 33, 59-60; Ch'i, 244-45. [BACK]

49. Among the seven brigade commanders serving under Wu at this time were four future military governors: Zhang Fulai, Wang Chengbin, Yan Xiangwen, and Xiao Yaonan. Hunan shanhou xiehui, 59-60; Dagongbao , June 20, 1918; Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa , 4: 105, 172; Fei Zepu, 72; Ch'i, 244-45. Sources differ on the exact number of Zhili mixed brigades that accompanied Wu Peifu to Hunan. However, Wu's own battlefield reports list four of these brigades in action with him. In mid 1918, the 4th Mixed Brigade (under Cao Ying) returned north. See Hunan shanhou xiehui, 34; Dagongbao , July 10, 1918. [BACK]

50. Dagongbao , June 16 and Nov. 27, 1918; Hunan shanhou xiehui, 60, 88. [BACK]

51. Wang Zhanyuan reportedly met all the 2d Division's troop pay with funds from the Hubei treasury, but only paid a portion of the expenses of other "national" forces, expecting them to seek assistance from the central government. Shibao , Sept. 5, 1919. Wang also paid the 18th Division, which he stationed at Yichang to watch over Wu Guangxin, but left Wu to appeal to the central government for his payroll. Shibao , Nov. 2, 1919. [BACK]

52. Hunan shanhou xiehui, 238. [BACK]

53. Dagongbao , Aug. 18 and 23, 1919. [BACK]

54. Dagongbao , June 9 and Aug. 24, 1918, July 3 and Sept. 4, 1919. [BACK]

55. Guomin xinbao , Feb. 13, 1914; Shibao , July 24, 1919. [BACK]

56. See, e.g., Dagongbao , June 17 and 27, 1918. [BACK]

57. Dagongbao , July 4, 1919. [BACK]

58. Sheridan, Chinese Warlord , 90-96. [BACK]

59. A good example of the demands placed on local officials by passing military commanders can be found in a 1924 report from the magistrate of Hubei's Zhijiang county. The magistrate excused his failure to prevent a local prison break by explaining that his energies had been completely absorbed by his efforts to provide services for a passing regiment commander, including the supply of military provisions, the recruitment of three hundred bearers, and even the special installation of a military telephone. Hubei gongbao , Dec. 30, 1924. [BACK]

60. Wou, "District Magistrate," 243-44. [BACK]

61. Guomin xinbao , Oct. 30, 1918; Dagongbao , Oct. 5 and Nov. 19, 1918. [BACK]

62. Liu Ying was a Tongmenghui and Forward Together Society activist who had organized a local revolutionary force in Hubei in 1911. After Yuan's dissolution of the National Assembly, Liu partici- soft

pated in a number of revolutionary plots in Hubei. After joining the Hubei independence movement, Liu led a small force under Wang Anlan's command. He Juefei, 1: 193-95; Guomin xinbao , Jan. 4 and 18, Apr. 18, 1918. In November 1917, Cai Jimin was appointed commander-in-chief of the Hubei army by Sun Yat-sen, and he subsequently led a number of unsuccessful uprisings in eastern Hubei. After this, Cai was invited to southwestern Hubei to take command of a number of forces raised by lesser revolutionary leaders. He Juefei, 1: 274; Guomin xinbao , Jan. 24 and 26, Apr. 4, 1918. Tang Keming worked actively to encourage Li Tiancai's and Shi Xingchuan's declarations of independence and then raised his own force of several thousand men in southwestern Hubei. Shibao , Dec. 13, 1917, Feb. 20, 1918; Guomin xinbao , Feb. 16 and Oct. 30, 1918. Wang Anlan raised several thousand men in northern Hubei in December 1917 and then retreated with this substantial force to southwestern Hubei. Shibao , Dec. 14 and 31, 1917; Guomin xinbao , Jan. 1 and Apr. 18, 1918. Arriving in western Hubei in early 1918 to aid in efforts to unify the Hubei independent forces, Tang Xizhi was given the title of "pacification commissioner" ( anfushi ) and assumed command over a small force of several battalions. Guomin xinbao , Apr. 18, May 27, and Oct. 30, 1918. Ji Yulin arrived in Hubei soon after Li's and Shi's declarations of independence and raised troops along the Han River. Guomin xinbao , Jan. 18, 1918. [BACK]

63. A special regiment of over eight hundred men was even organized under Shi Xingchuan composed entirely of Japanese or Boading military school graduates and former middle- or lower-level officers. Guomin xinbao , Jan. 11, 1918. [BACK]

64. Guomin xinbao , Jan. 16 and 18, 1918. [BACK]

65. Guomin xinbao , Apr. 18, Oct. 30 and 31, Nov. 4 and 14, 1918; Shibao , Sept. 13, 1918, Feb. 2, 1920. [BACK]

66. Dagongbao , Oct. 3, 1919. [BACK]

67. Guomin xinbao , Apr. 30, 1918; Shibao , Apr. 19, 1919, Jan. 11,1920. [BACK]

68. Liu Yunshi, "Ji minchu Exi san dahai: Tufei, tuanfa yu yapian" [Remembering the three great evils of early Republican West Hubei: Bandits, militia bosses, and opium.] Hubei wenxian 64 (July 10, 1982): 67. [BACK]

69. Guomin xinbao , Apr. 18, 1918. [BACK]

70. Among these commanders-in-chief were Bo Wenwei, the former Guomindang military governor of Anhui, and Lan Tianwei, a Hubei military officer who had organized a revolutionary plot inside the Beiyang Army in 1911. Guomin xinbao , Nov. 14, 1918; Shibao , Sept. 13, 1918, Feb. 11 and Apr. 19, 1919, Apr. 21 and May 25, 1920; Liu Yunshi, "Bo Wenwei jiangjun yu Exi jingguojun" [General continue

Bo Wenwei and West Hubei's National Pacification Army], Hubei wenxian , 70 (Jan. 10, 1984): 4-7. [BACK]

71. Guomin xinbao , Mar. 11 and 20, 1919; Shibao , May 8, 1919; Liu Yunshi, "Zhang Taiyan yu Exi jingguojun jingwei" [Main points concerning Zhang Taiyan and the West Hubei National Pacification Army], Hubei wenxian , 63 (Apr. 10, 1982): 6-7. [BACK]

72. Guomin xinbao , Apr. 18, 1918; Shibao , Apr. 19, 1919, Sept. 13, 1918, Apr. 21, 1920. [BACK]

73. Guomin xinbao , Feb. 28, 1919; Shibao , Dec. 3, 1919; He Juefei, 1: 274-77. The footnotes in the last source summarize the evidence concerning Tang's possible complicity in Cai's death. [BACK]

74. Guomin xinbao , Mar. 20, 1919; Shibao , May 8, Nov. 24, Dec. 3 and 8, 1919; Hankou xinwenbao , Aug. 9, 1919. [BACK]

75. With this defeat, Li retired to Yunnan. Gao Guanghan, 14-15; Shibao , Nov. 8, 15, and 22, 1920. [BACK]

76. Huazi ribao [Chinese Daily], Jan. 5, 1921; Shuntian ribao , Jan. 13, 17, 26, and 31, 1921. [BACK]

77. Yang Siyi, 119; Guomin xinbao , Nov. 3, 1917. [BACK]

78. Qiu Ao, "Liu Jianfan," 82-83. [BACK]

79. HJDJ, 367-68. [BACK]

80. Huang Yi'ou, "Liu Jianfan," 182; Qiu Ao, "Liu Jianfan," 86; HJDJ, 371-72. [BACK]

81. Zhang Xueji raised an anti-Yuan force in West Hunan with Tian Yingzhao's assistance during the Anti-Monarchical War. After this conflict, he had received an appointment as circuit intendant, and most of his troops were disbanded. Zhang raised a new army to join the struggle against Fu Liangzuo. Dai Jitao, 85; Dagongbao , Mar. 19, 1917; Shibao , Sept. 17, 1916, Oct. 20, 1917; Yang Siyi, 119. For the most detailed account of the West Hunan forces during the NorthSouth War, see Yang Siyi, 118-30. [BACK]

82. See, e.g., Dagongbao , Oct. 27, Nov. 1 and 18, 1917. [BACK]

83. Dagongbao , June 1 and 21, Sept. 12, 1918. [BACK]

84. Yang Siyi, 124-25; Dagongbao , Sept. 24, Dec. 3 and 12, 1918, Dec. 4, 1919. [BACK]

85. Yang Siyi, 121-22, 124; Guomin xinbao , Jan. 20 and Mar. 6, 1918. [BACK]

86. Yang Siyi, 126; Dagongbao , Dec. 4, 1919. [BACK]

87. Dagongbao , Nov. 9, 1918. For other examples, see Dagongbao , Oct. 5, 1918, Jan 4, 1919. [BACK]

88. Yang Siyi, 129; Xiao Shipeng, "Liao Xiangyun Yanxi qishi jilue" [A brief account of Liao Xiangyun's Yanxi revolt], HWZ, 8: 132-33. [BACK]

89. Huang Yi'ou, "Liu Jianfan," 182; Guomin xinbao , Jan. 26, continue

1918; Hankou Zhongxi bao [The Hankou Chinese-Western News], Feb. 1, 1918. [BACK]

90. Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 102; Qiu Ao, "'Liu Jianfan Lingling duli qianhou' xushu" [A sequel to "The beginning and end of Liu Jianfan's independence at Lingling"], WZX, 30: 129-31; Yang Shiji, 252. [BACK]

91. Yang Siyl, 126-27; Qiu Ao, "Liu Jianfan . . . xushu," 131-32. [BACK]

92. Cheng told one mediator, "If you have Tan, you can't have me; if you have me, you can't have Tan." In a private conversation about Cheng with the same person, Tan hinted, "The east wind always seeks to overpower the west, and the west wind the east." Zhong Boyi, section 11. [BACK]

93. Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 102; Xiao Zhongqi, "Tan Yankai lian Wu (Peifu) qu Zhang (Jingyao) de linzhao" [Odd scraps on Tan Yankai's unification with Wu Peifu to oust Zhang Jingyao], HWZ, 8: 116; Dagongbao , July 5, 6, 8, and 14, 1919. [BACK]

94. Yang Siyi, 126; Zhong Boyi, section 11. [BACK]

95. Hunan shanhou xiehui, 101-3. [BACK]

96. Zuo Linfen, "Xiangren qu Fu (Liangzuo), Zhang (Jingyao) huiyi" [Memoir of the Hunan ouster of Fu (Liangzuo) and Zhang (Jingyao)], HWZ, 8: 111. Hunan shanhou xiehui, Xiangzai jilue , is an example of the anti-Zhang materials produced by the Hunan Rehabilitation Association. [BACK]

97. For a more detailed description of the May Fourth Movement in Hunan, see McDonald, Urban Origins , 95-113. An important collection of documents on the May 4th Movement in Hunan is to be found in Wusi shiqi Hunan renmin geming douzheng shiliao xuanbian [Collection of historical materials on the revolutionary struggle of the Hunan people in the May Fourth period], ed. Hunan sheng zhexue shehui kexue yanjiusuo xiandaishi yanjiushi [Contemporary history research room of the Hunan Provincial Philosophy-Social Science Research Institute] (Changsha: Hunan renmin chubanshe, 1979). [BACK]

98. HJDJ, 405-7; Jiang Zhuru, "Hunan xuesheng de fanri qu Zhang douzheng" [The Hunan student anti-Japanese oust-Zhang struggle], HWZ, 11: 26-29; Tang Yaozhang, "Hunan xuejie quZhang yundong qianhou" [Before and after the Hunan student oustZhang movement], HWZ, 11: 97-102; HLZ, 1959, no. 2: 44-46. [BACK]

99. Zuo Linfen, 111. [BACK]

100. Jing Siyou, 137; Qiu Ao, "Liu Jianfan . . . xushu," 132-33; Xiao Zhongqi, "Tan Yankai," 115-16. [BACK]

101. Xie Benshu, 68-71. [BACK]

102. Xiao Zhongqi, "Tan Yankai," 117; Jing Siyou, 138. [BACK]

103. Wang Wuwei, 18-22; Huang Yi'ou, "Tan Yankai beipo continue

xiatai he Li Zhonglin deng beisha de huiyi" [Memoir of the forced retirement of Tan Yankai and the killing of Li Zhonglin, etc.], HWZ, 4: 5; Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 104; HJDJ, 411-14. [BACK]

104. Huang Yi'ou, "Tan Yankai," 3-4; Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 104-5; Shibao , Aug. 6 and 16, Sept. 20 and 28, 1920. [BACK]

105. Qiu Ao, "Liu Jianfan . . . xushu," 140. [BACK]

106. Jing Siyou, 138-39; Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 104. [BACK]

107. Qiu Ao, "Liu Jianfan . . . xushu," 141; Tao Juyin, "Ji Tan Yankai," 105-7. [BACK]

108. Liu Cuochen, 2, 4. [BACK]

109. A useful document collection on the May Fourth Movement in Hubei is Wusi yundong zai Wuhan shiliao xuanji [Collection of historical materials on the May Fourth Movement in Wuhan], ed. Zhang Yinghui and Kong Xiangzheng (Wuhan: Hubei renmin chubanshe, 1981). [BACK]

110. Liu Cuochen, 9; Shibao , Sept. 1, 1920. The highest post Sun held before this was as a circuit intendant in Hubei, a post that he had also received as a result of Wang's patronage. [BACK]

111. Liu Cuochen, 9, 13; USDS 893.00/3675 (Huston, Nov. 18, 1920); Shibao , Sept. 1, 4, 17, 19, and 22, 1920. [BACK]

112. Liu Cuochen, 10; USDS 893.00/3675 (Huston, Nov. 18, 1920); Shibao , Sept. 22 and 25, Oct. 2, Nov. 16, 1920. [BACK]

113. Liu Cuochen, 10-11. According to one account, Wang received some pressure from Wu Peifu to accept Xia and also feared contacts between Xia's supporters and the West Hubei independent army. Shibao , Sept. 23, 1920. [BACK]

114. Shibao , Nov. 24, 1920. [BACK]

115. Liu Cuochen, 11-12; Shibao , Nov. 28 and 30, 1920. [BACK]

116. Liu Cuochen, 11, 15-16, 40; Shuntian ribao , Jan. 23, 1921. [BACK]

117. Liu Cheng'en was a native of Xiangyang, Hubei, and a graduate of the Beiyang Military Academy. Although he was a military man, during the 1911 Revolution he served for a time as Guangxi's civil governor. Liu Cuochen, 53-57; USDS 893.00/3840 (Huston, Mar. 9, 1921); Shuntian ribao , Mar. 8, 9, and 14, Apr. 10, 1921. [BACK]

118. Liu Cuochen, 22-39, 43-45, 56-57; USDS 893.00/3835 (Huston, Mar. 18, 1921). [BACK]

119. Yang Wenkai, "Wo zai Wang Zhanyuan muxia," 97; Liu Cuochen, 74-84, 92-93; Shuntian ribao , June 11 and 15, 1921. [BACK]

120. Liu Cuochen, 94, 101-2, 123; Shuntian ribao , June 18 and 21, July 17, 1921. [BACK]

121. Liu Cuochen, 116-42; Shuntian ribao , June 15, 22, and 30, 1921; USDS 893.00/3981 (Huston, June 22, 1921). [BACK]

122. Fei Zepu, 76-77; Shibao , July 21 and 27, 1920. [BACK]

123. Liu Cuochen, 154-55. break [BACK]

124. Zhang Lianfen, 105-6; Hankou xinwenbao , June 21 and 22, 1921. [BACK]

125. Shuntian ribao , Aug. 4, 1921; USDS 893.00/4028 (Adams, July 28, 1921); Liu Cuochen, 147-52. [BACK]

126. A well-documented contemporary account of this war can be found in Xiangjun yuan-E zhanshi [History of the Hunan army's AidHubei War] (n.p., 1921). [BACK]

127. Zhang Lianfen, 106-12; Yang Wenkai, "Wo zai Wang Zhanyuan muxia," 98; Liu Cuochen, 165-73; Shuntian ribao , Aug. 3 and 10, 1921. [BACK]

128. Zhang Lianfen, 107. [BACK]

129. Xiangjun , 65; Shuntian ribao , Aug. 11, 1921. [BACK]

1. Sun Yat-sen, Guofu quanji [The collected works of Sun Yat-sen] (Taibei: Zhonghua minguo gejie jinian guofu bainian danchen choubei weiyuanhui, 1965), 3: 374. [BACK]

2. Hunan shanhou xiehui, 13. [BACK]

3. Dagongbao , Apr. 29, 1919. [BACK]

4. Unpublished correspondence cited in Xie Benshu, "Wu Peifu yu xinan junfa de goujie" [The collusion between Wu Peifu and the southwestern warlords], Guizhou shehui kexue [Guizhou Social Science], 1983, no. 5: 70. [BACK]

5. For a discussion of the introduction of the term warlord into Chinese political discourse, see Arthur Waldron, "The Warlord: Twentieth-Century Chinese Understandings of Violence, Militarism, and Imperialism," American Historical Review 96, no. 4 (Oct. 1991): 1073-1100. [BACK]

6. Arthur Waldron, "Warlordism versus Federalism: The Revival of a Debate?" China Quarterly 121 (Mar. 1990): 116-24. [BACK]

7. Nathan, Peking Politics . See esp. chs. 1, 7, and 8. [BACK]

8. Pye, Warlord Politics , 9. [BACK]

9. Mao Tse-tung, 2: 273.

10. Ibid., 272. [BACK]

9. Mao Tse-tung, 2: 273.

10. Ibid., 272. [BACK]

11. Cheng Hsiao-shih, Party-Military Relations in the PRC and Taiwan: Paradoxes of Control (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1990). [BACK]

12. Sheridan, Chinese Warlord , 14-16. break [BACK]